透水性铺装地面的壤中流特征

人行道、步行街、自行车道、休闲广场和庭院等静负荷和动负荷较低、结构要求不高的硬化地面,改造为透水性铺装地面可以提高地表雨水下渗能力,减少地面积水,削减洪峰并延迟洪峰出现时间.利用人工模拟降雨试验,降雨均匀度超过80％,降雨强度分别为31.38、42.32、50.60、58.88、69.82、78.09 mm/h,对构筑的透水性铺装地面降雨入渗产流过程进行模拟研究.结果表明：在降雨历时60 min、降雨量小于78 mm的试验条件下,壤中流是透水性铺装地面总径流的主要组成形式,透水性铺装地面壤中流占总降雨量的比例随降雨强度的增大而增大,透水性铺装地面的铺设是导致地面壤中流发生和发展的主要原因.研究结果可为基于透水性铺装地面的雨水利用提供参考.     

A multi-scale approach of runoff generation in a Sahelian gully catchment: a case study in Niger

Runoff production conditions in a small gully catchment are studied at four different scales: the point scale (0.001 m²), the local scale (1 m²), the field scale (of the order of 100 m²) and the catchment scale (0.2 km²). At the point scale, infiltration measurements were conducted using a tension infiltrometer. At the local and the field scale, runoff plots were setup on typical soil surface conditions of the catchment (plateau bare soil, hillslope bare soil and fallow grassland). At the catchment scale, stream discharges were measured at two gauging stations.The overland flow yield is significantly nonuniform in space, due to the high spatial variability of infiltration capacities and the depressional storage of the soil surface. The runoff and the infiltration data collected confirmed the major role played by soil crusting on runoff generation in that part of Sahel. At the point scale, hydraulic conductivity measurements have shown that infiltration and runoff were driven by the hydraulic properties of the crust. At the field scale, microtopography and heterogeneity in the soil surface crusting decreased discharge volumes. The influence of vegetation growth on runoff yield was evident in the case of the fallow sites. Analysis of discharge data at the catchment scale highlights that infiltration through the bottom of the gully between two gauging stations leads to considerable runoff water transmission losses.     

Spatial variations of rainwash and runoff within apparently homogeneous areas

The magnitude and causes of rainwash and runoff variability within small and supposedly “homogeneous” areas were investigated. Artificial rainfall (at 50 mm hr⁻¹ for 30 minutes) was applied to twenty identical 0.0929 m² (1 ft²) mini-plots arranged within a wetted annular 16.5 m² in area. Despite the uniformity of techniques used for data collection, there was considerable variability in the rainwash and runoff data (coefficient of variation= 21 to 35% and 20 to 75% respectively) at the three locations in southern Ontario. In comparison with laboratory data, field rainwash variability was similar but field runoff variability was substantially higher. Soil strength parameters, surface roughness and microtopography, as well as aggregation indices, are considered to be the potential causes of the observed variabilities. Operator variance was found to be extremely significant in our study. It is suggested, therefore, that comparison of erosion data collected by different researchers must be conducted with great caution.     

雨强和坡度对红壤坡耕地地表径流及壤中流的影响

地表径流和壤中流是坡面重要水文过程,雨强和坡度是影响坡面地表径流和壤中流产流主要因素。为研究降雨强度和地表坡度对坡耕地地表径流和壤中流的影响,该文采用人工模拟降雨试验法,在长3.0 m、宽1.5 m、深0.5 m土槽,设计4个不同坡度(5°、10°、15°、20°)和3个不同雨强(30、60、90 mm/h)对红壤坡耕地地表径流及壤中流产流过程进行模拟试验。结果表明:1)壤中流开始产流时间滞后于地表径流,降雨强度从30到90 mm/h,地表径流、壤中流产流开始时间均随雨强增大而减小,壤中流比地表产流开始滞后时间随着雨强增大先增大后趋于稳定;2)地表径流强度随雨强增大而增大,壤中流初始径流强度随雨强增大而增大,不同雨强下壤中流径流峰值相近;3)地表径流和壤中流产流过程曲线有明显差异,地表径流产流过程线先增大后趋于稳定,壤中流产流过程线呈抛物线型即先增大后减小;4)从5°到20°,地表产流开始时间随坡度增大而减小,壤中流产流开始时间随坡度增大先减小后增大;5)从5°到20°,地表径流强度先增大后减小,10°为转折坡度,壤中流产流峰值随坡度增大而减小,并且随着坡度增大达到壤中流峰值时间不断减小。     

应用DRAINMOD农田排水模型对地下水位和排水量的模拟

农田排水工程在防御涝渍灾害、促进农作物正常生长和改善田间耕作管理等方面起着积极的作用,合理的排水系统设计是保证排水系统正常运行、作物正常生长的关键。以水平衡理论为基础建立的DRAINMOD模型,可用于研究排水系统对作物生长和各水文要素的影响,适用于浅地下水位和较湿润地区。该文对模型的基本原理和参数输入要求进行了详细描述,采用加拿大安大略省南部Eugene F. Whelan试验站自由排水和控制排水-地下灌溉两种水位管理条件下,1992～1994年6～8月地下水埋深观测值、3年地表径流和地下排水水量观测值对模型进行了模拟验证。图形显示和统计参数指标分析表明,模拟值与观测值拟合较好,表明模型具有良好的水文模拟性能,可用于预测地下水埋深、地表和地下排水量,是农田排水工程设计和水管理的有效工具。     

坡面径流调控薄层水流水力学特性试验

为澄清复杂地表的水流运动过程、水流水力学参数受流量及地表状况的影响,该研究采用野外标准径流小区实地放水冲刷试验,研究了鱼鳞坑、苜蓿草地、秸秆覆盖不同径流调控措施的坡面薄层水流水动力学特性的变化规律,包括水流流速、水深、流态、阻力系数。研究结果表明：坡面薄层水流的平均流速与水深主要受流量控制,其二者之间呈现幂函数关系;地表状况与流量大小直接影响着坡面流态,对于裸地与鱼鳞坑坡面,流量较小时属于层流与缓流,在流量达到3.0 m3/h时,属于过渡流、紊流和急流;而苜蓿草地、秸秆覆盖坡面均属于层流和缓流;并提出复杂坡面的阻力系数由颗粒阻力、形态阻力、波阻力叠加而成,其大小主要受地表状况影响;阻力系数与土壤侵蚀率呈现良好对数关系。总之,坡面采取径流调控措施后,其地表抗侵蚀力和泥沙搬运的能力明显强于裸地,径流流速明显降低,水流流态明显平缓,水流受阻力显著增加。研究结果对于揭示不同径流调控措施对坡面拦泥蓄水、减流减沙及侵蚀动力学机制有着重要的理论基础和实践指导意义。     

蚯蚓引入垂直流-水平潜流湿地混流系统处理沼液的效果

为了避免或减少人工湿地处理厌氧发酵液发生堵塞,并提高系统处理效果,该试验将蚯蚓引入到垂直流湿地系统中,并与水平潜流湿地构成混流系统,用来处理厌氧发酵液。结果表明:采用蚯蚓垂直流湿地-水平潜流湿地混流系统处理厌氧发酵液,在进水平均有机负荷达1.82 kg/(m~2·d),水力负荷10、20 cm/d的条件下,对化学需氧量、总磷、总悬浮固体的去除率达到了90%以上,氨氮去除率达80%以上,总氮去除率也维持在60%以上。提高水力负荷对污染物的消减量更有优势,水平潜流湿地对总氮的消减优于蚯蚓生态湿地。2种水力负荷下,混流湿地出水化学需氧量、氨氮、总磷、总悬浮固体均能达到《畜禽养殖业污染物排放标准》要求。蚯蚓使混流系统对化学需氧量、氨氮、总凯氏氮的去除分别提高了2%、12%、4%,同时具有同步处理污水污泥,缓解湿地堵塞的效果,处理水质基本达标,处理污泥的成本也大大降低,因此具有很大应用潜力。     

潜流人工湿地对畜禽养殖废水的净化效果

为了提高潜流人工湿地对畜禽养殖废水中污染物的去除效果,该试验通过改变湿地内部结构构建了4个潜流人工湿地单元,选用灰砖块和碎石做湿地填料,冬夏季轮作栽培齿果酸模和大狼把草,考察湿地运行期间对厌氧消化后猪场废水的净化效果。结果表明：湿地单元经过80 d的启动,运行稳定,有植物湿地比无植物对照湿地提前10 d左右进入稳定期。运行期间,各湿地单元对废水中氨氮（ammonia nitrogen,NH4+-N）、总氮（total nitrogen, TN）、总磷（total phosphorus,TP）和化学需氧量（chemical oxygen demand,CODCr）的去除率与气温变化均呈现显著线性正相关。在水力停留时间（hydraulic retention time,HRT）为4 d,进水中CODCr、NH4+-N、TN、TP浓度分别为520、110、120、10 mg/L左右时,4个湿地单元对CODCr、TP的去除率分别在60%和70%以上,对NH4+-N和TN的去除率分别为28%～67%和32%～58%,植物对CODCr及TP去除的贡献分别稳定在10%和4%左右,植物对氮的去除效果受气温影响较大,夏季对NH4+-N和TN去除的贡献分别可达13%和12%。与一般潜流人工湿地比较,改进的波形潜流人工湿地对NH4+-N、TN和CODCr的平均去除率提高均在3%以上,对TP去除效果差异不显著（P＞0.05）。该研究可为构建大规模的潜流人工湿地处理畜禽养殖废水提供理论依据和技术支持。     

农田排水氮磷拦截潜流坝的设计与运行

为控制太湖流域农业面源污染,设计了一种可以有效减少农田排水氮磷含量、控制水头的氮磷拦截潜流坝。该文介绍了该潜流坝的结构特点、建造方法及工作原理,并根据设计构建了实体氮磷拦截潜流坝,同时进行了数据监测。结果表明该氮磷拦截潜流坝运行稳定、控制农业面源污染效果良好。其中水体铵态氮的平均去除率较不建造潜流坝提高了8.3%;总氮的去除率平均提高了7.2%;总磷的去除率平均提高了17%。因此,该氮磷拦截潜流坝可作为农业面源污染氮磷拦截系统中的重要部分。     

称重式坡面径流小区水流流量自动测量系统

坡面径流小区流量观测是坡地水土流失状况研究的重要内容。该文提出了一种新型的含沙水流流量自动观测方法和测量系统。通过受力分析和水力推导,得到了无含沙水流流量测定计算模型和含沙水流流量校正公式。模型验证和参数标定的试验结果表明：无含沙水流的拉力输出值和流量之间的关系与推导得到的水力学模型非常吻合,决定系数可以达到0.99。含沙水流流量通过校正可以得到精度很高的观测结果,与人工观测平均相对误差仅为0.4％。因此,该含沙水流自动测量系统具有很好的可靠性和观测精度,有一定的应用前景。     

黄土坡面片流产流过程模拟研究

采用模拟降雨试验方法对黄土坡面片流产流过程进行了试验研究,试验雨强分别为1.00、1.33、1.67、2.00、2.33 mm min-1,坡度分别为9°、12°、15°、18°、21°.结果表明:1)不同雨强及不同坡度条件下,坡面片流径流率随降雨历时的变化均呈先增大后趋于稳定的趋势,不同雨强下较不同坡度下趋于稳定的时间早5 min左右,变化过程皆可用对数方程y=aLn(x) +b描述;2)坡面片流径流深随雨强及坡度的变化皆可用幂函数方程H=aIb和H=aSb描述;3)坡面片流径流深对坡度和雨强的综合响应可用二元幂函数方程H=3.83I1.01 S0.490描述,且雨强的影响大于坡度;4)黄土坡面片流产流的片蚀效应显著,不同雨强及不同坡度条件下片流产流的片蚀效应分别表现为幂函数方程M=0.0378 H1.21及线性方程M=0.235H-3.48.     

径流小区产流过程量水堰自动测量系统

坡面径流小区是水土保持和相关领域研究的重要手段,流量观测是径流小区观测的主要内容.该研究设计开发了一种适用于径流小区流量过程的自动观测系统,该系统集成了量水堰、水位计和泥沙传感器,并配套了数据自动采集、存储和传输设备.通过水槽试验,标定了量水堰流量系数,建立了针对量水堰结构设计的近似流量模型并获取了模犁参数;模型验证和参数标定试验的结果表明:三角堰的水位与流量之间有着非常好的相关性,简化流量模型可以用于计算流量,简化模型回归分析的决定系数为0.98.此外,该文分析讨论了泥沙含量对流量观测的影响,提出了净产水(扣除泥沙体积的产水量)的概念和估计方法.该含沙水流自动测量系统具有很好的可靠性和观测精度,在水土保持监测方面具有广阔的应用前景.     

Sensitivity of simulated hillslope subsurface flow to rainfall patterns,soil texture and land use

Knowledge of the generation of subsurface flow for hillslopes is important for controlling agricultural nonpoint nutrient losses. This study used a physically based hillslope hydrologic model HYDRUS‐2D to assess the sensitivity of simulated subsurface flow to the interactions between precipitation, soil texture and land use. Soil moisture data from 1 January 2013 to 23 August 2014 at two monitoring sites on a tea plantation hillslope were used to calibrate the van Genuchten–Mualem hydraulic parameters for this model. For six different textural classes (loamy sand, loam, silt, silt loam, clay loam and clay) and four land‐use types (tea garden, forest, grassland and bare soil), scenario‐based simulations were carried out for varied precipitation intensities (6.0, 15.0, 30.0, 45.0, 60.0 and 76.0 mm/day) and frequencies (time intervals of 1, 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 days). Results indicated that the hillslope run‐off was dominated by subsurface flow, which was influenced by precipitation and antecedent moisture conditions. A threshold value of 0.18 m³/m³ of mean hillslope soil moisture was observed for the initiation of subsurface flow. High precipitation intensity (i.e. 75.0 mm/day) substantially increased subsurface flow for all soil textures. In addition, the sensitivity of the bare soil hillslope to rainfall patterns was more than two times higher than that of the vegetated (i.e. grassland, tea garden and forest) hillslope. These findings suggest that extreme precipitation events and land‐use change will increase the risks of subsurface flow on hillslopes. Therefore, optimal fertilizer application strategy and land‐use planning should be proposed for controlling the hillslope nonpoint nutrient losses.     

坡面径流类型对侵蚀产沙及水沙传递关系的影响

降雨-径流格局对土壤侵蚀过程具有重要影响,以团山沟七号全坡面径流场1961-1969年间65次径流事件的径流泥沙数据为基础,选取历时、径流深和径流变率为径流过程的特征指标,采用K均值聚类和判别分析相结合的方法,将坡面径流划分为5种类型。其中,A型径流具有超长历时、低变率、小径流的特点,是较为特殊的类型,B、C型径流具有中长历时、中高变率、大径流的特点,D型径流具有短历时、低变率、小径流的特点,是最为普遍的类型。E型径流具有中历时、中变率、中径流的特点。不同径流类型下的输沙模数、平均含沙量及最大含沙量由大到小依次为:CBEDA,B、E、C型径流应是坡面径流调控的重点。不同径流类型输沙模数的差异主要来源于径流量(深)的变化,相同径流量(深)条件下,不同径流类型输沙模数的差异主要来源于由径流历时和径流变率所引起的水沙传递关系的改变;与A型径流相比,其作用使D、E、B、C型径流的输沙模数相对增大7.9、6.3、4.8和4.5倍,增大倍数随径流量(深)的增加呈逐渐减小趋势。通过构建包含主要径流特征指标的动力参数ξ,对不同径流类型及径流阶段的径流-泥沙传递关系进行数学描述,其最优回归关系均符合S=alnξ+b的一般形式,能合理解释不同径流类型及不同径流阶段含沙量变化的主要驱动因素。研究结果可为坡面径流类型划分、水沙传递关系构建、全面评估坡面径流调控系统的水土保持意义、进一步丰富坡面径流调控理论的内涵提供一定的参考。     

Land-use impacts on surface runoff and soil detachment within agricultural sloping lands in Northern Vietnam

Two consecutive years of investigation on soil surface features, surface runoff and soil detachment within 1-m² microplots on 40% slope highlighted the effects of land-use change, vegetation cover and biological activity on the water pathways in Northern Vietnam. Three replicate plots were set up on each of five land-uses: cassava (CAS), grass fodder of Bracharia ruziziensis (BRA), a 3-year old fallow (FAL), tree stands of Acacia mangium and Venicia montana (FOR), and a fallow with regrowth of Eucalyptus regularly cut (EUC). The second year, two of the microplots under FAL and EUC were treated with herbicide (FALh, EUCh), one of them was burnt (FALh+b, EUCh+b). The highest yearly surface runoff coefficient of 16%, and soil detachment rate of 700 g m^− 2 yr^− 1 in average with a maximum of 1305 g m^− 2 yr^− 1 have been recorded under CAS. On FALh and FALh+b, runoff ratios were 8.7 and 13.5%, respectively and detachment rates were 86 and 389 g m^− 2. On FAL and BRA the yearly runoff ratio varied from 5.9 to 9.8% but the detachment rate was limited at 24 to 35 g m^− 2. FOR and EUC annual runoff was ≤ 3.1% and annual soil detachment ≤ 71 g m^− 2. These values were very low compared to the values reported on steep slopes in Laos within similar climate and vegetation cover.The runoff and detachment rates underlined the importance of rainfall intensities, soil physical properties, soil surface features, soil vegetation cover and biological activity. The annual surface runoff was highly correlated to the soil surface crusting. CAS and BRA plots were prone to crusting especially after weeding at the onset of the rainy season, when the soil surface was still uncovered. Soil bioturbation (earthworm casting activity) was the second factor that explains local variation of surface runoff and soil detachment. The continuous production of earthworms casts on soil surface, especially on FOR and EUC microplots, induced a marked surface roughness and reduced the surface runoff. The production of casts was very limited in FAL and completely absent in CAS microplots. So it is evident that our results confirm the deleterious effects of cassava on soil and water conservation.     

流域系统径流侵蚀链内泥沙输移的空间尺度效应

尺度问题在地貌过程及水文模拟研究中具有重要意义,以黄土高原丘陵沟壑区岔巴沟小流域为例,基于毛沟-支沟-干沟尺度序列典型水文站的实测径流泥沙数据,分析流域系统基于事件的径流侵蚀链内泥沙输移的空间尺度效应。结果表明:1)基于侵蚀链毛沟-支沟-干沟不同空间尺度的平均输沙模数、平均含沙量、最大含沙量分别依次为3 912、3 285、3 522 t/km2,497、524、679 kg/m3,639、634、800 kg/m3,且在流域系统中均保持空间上的不变性;2)与单一力学指标相比,引入洪峰流量项的水流功率、单位面积径流能量及水流能量等复合能量指标能更好地描述侵蚀链不同尺度内及尺度间水沙关系;3)侵蚀链的输沙量主要取决于径流量,而洪峰流量能更好地解释侵蚀链内不同尺度径流输沙的差异,在侵蚀输沙的预测变量中引入表征径流变率的指标会提高中小型产沙事件泥沙预报的可靠性;单位洪峰流量(增加1 m3/s)引起的输沙增量是单位径流量(增加1 m3)增沙作用的875倍以上,欲消除侵蚀链内上下游径流输沙的空间尺度效应,则需将对应的洪峰流量比调控至5‰以下,或将对应的径流能量比调控至600以下;4)侵蚀链内上游含沙水流对下游的泥沙输移影响有限,随流域面积增大,含沙水流的空间尺度效应降低,输沙模数300 t/km2的大型侵蚀产沙事件尤为明显。分析结果突出了流域系统径流侵蚀的过程特性和洪水调控可能引起的巨大减沙潜力。因此,针对高含沙水流,侵蚀链内泥沙调控及其水土保持措施的效益评估和功能评价亦应基于过程。研究结果可为全面揭示径流调控系统的水土保持意义、推动水土保持措施效益的精细化评估提供理论依据和科学支撑。     

Genetic Diversity and Phylogenic Relations Among Sahelian Sorghum Accessions

To establish the genetic relationship among Sahelian sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench S.L.] landraces from Burkina Faso were submitted to electrophoretic analysis for 10 enzymatic systems and 18 loci. Four enzymatic systems (ADH, LAP, MDH, PGD) and five loci revealed polymorphism both within and among landraces. Thirty-eight per cent of the landraces were monomorphic in all the 18 loci. The genotypic frequencies in most of the landraces deviated markedly from Hardy–Weinberg proportions due to a major heterozygote deficit, the landrace being homozygous or a mixture of homozygotes. Multivariate analysis yielded three main groups, containing native landraces and five minors, containing introduced cultivars, randomly distributed over the territory. The pattern of allelic occurrence was random and unrelated to external selection pressures. The major diversity among landraces appears to be from genetic shift caused by farmers’ selection of their seeds. It could also be due to the low rates of outcrossing (19%) and migration (0.06) prevailing in the set.     

Evidence of subsurface preferential flow using soil hydrologic monitoring in the Shale Hills catchment

Characterization of preferential flow at multiple spatial and temporal scales is fundamental to the understanding of complex subsurface heterogeneity and catchment hydrology. Evidence of subsurface preferential flow and the conditions under which it occurs were investigated in the Shale Hills catchment, a humid forested region in central Pennsylvania, USA. Seven monitoring sites, plus five replicates, were established along a concave hillslope, a convex hillslope and a valley floor to monitor in situ the hydrology in various soil horizons and their interfaces at half‐minute intervals. Using the indicator of a lower horizon that responded to a rainstorm earlier than an upper horizon within the same soil profile, we investigated the subsurface preferential flow processes and their dynamics in each of the five soil series mapped in the catchment. Threshold behaviour, hydrophobicity impact, influence of soil thickness and topography were observed in the spatial and temporal variation of the subsurface preferential flow, which was initiated more readily under the conditions of more intense rain, drier initial soil, shallower soil, and steeper slope. Whereas preferential flow seemed common in this catchment, its frequency during the 15 storm events from 23 September 2006 to 1 January 2007 ranged from 0 to 73.3% for the 68 soil horizons monitored at the 12 stations, with an overall average frequency of 7.5% (i.e. ～5 horizons per storm event). This preferential flow was more frequent during the drier period than that during the wetter one. Variation was observed within the same soil series, even for those profiles adjacent to one another. This was due to the differences in hillslope position, slope gradient and orientation, the underlying bedrock fracture and orientation, or some combinations. Whereas different soil series help differentiate the processes and dynamics involved in the subsurface preferential flow, a combined consideration of soil types and landscape features is important to ensure proper use of the soil data for hydrological applications.     

三江平原典型湿地水化学性质研究

以三江平原湿地生态试验站为研究基地,选择典型采样地点,对湿地水、排水沟水、降水、保护区河流水样进行测试,分析水样中主要离子含量(HCO3-、Cl-、NO3-、SO42-、Ca2 、Mg2 、K 、Na )、重金属元素含量(Cu、Zn、Fe、Mn)和营养元素含量(N、P、K)及其有效性。研究湿地水化学的一般性质以及湿地排水后湿地水中化学元素的迁移特征。研究结果表明,湿地水化学类型一般为HCO3--Ca.Mg型和HCO3--Ca.Na型,重金属序列为Fe>Mn>Cu>Zn>Pb、Cr。排水中丧失大量的化学元素,这是湿地退化的原因之一。