Estimation of reference evapotranspiration and crop coefficient in wheat under semi-arid environment in India

Abstract

The comparison of six standard reference evapotranspiration (ETo) estimate models was carried out with measured lysimeter evapotranspiration (ETc) in wheat crop in a semi-arid environment at Rahuri, India. The globally accepted reference evapotranspiration model of FAO 56 Penman Monteith underestimated the references ETo by 19.2% (420.5 mm) over lysimeter ET (520.7 mm). Out of the remaining five models, the Hargreaves model ranked first and was overestimated by 6.5% followed by the Blaney Criddle model (underestimated by ?5.6%). The references ETo by pan evaporation model underestimated the reference ETo to the extent of ?28.8%. The influence of statistical indicators like RMSE, MBE which was computed by considering Lysimeter ETc as standard, was quite low in the Hargreaves model compared to the rest of the models and hence, the Hargreaves method is quite acceptable for ETo estimates as this method requires much less climatic parameters (temperature and extraterrestrial radiation) than Penman Monteith (FAO56) and Modified Penman of FAO 24 as these models require aerodynamic and radiation terms, besides additional physical terms in former models of ETo estimates. The seasonal crop coefficients were 1.24, 1.13, 0.94, 0.85, 1.06 and 1.40 in Penman Monteith, Modified Penman, Hargreaves, Radiation balance, Blaney Criddle and Pan Evaporation models, respectively.     

Estimation of a reliable evapotranspiration model and crop coefficient in red gram ( Cajanus cajan L .) for semi-arid environments in India

The study aims to compute the reference evapotranspiration (ETo) by six standard methods such as Penman Monteith, Modified Penman, Hargreaves, Radiation Balance, Blaney Criddle and Pan Evaporation by using the meteorological data of the All India Coordinated Research Project on Water Management at Rahuri, India (long. 74° 18′, lat. 19° 45′). These methods were compared with lysimeter crop evapotranspiration (ETc) by statistical tools. The results revealed that the total lysimeter ETc of red gram in 132 days' growing period (sowing to harvest) was 494?mm and the ETo in the above-mentioned models were 485.2, 486.9, 544.6, 547.6, 563.9 and 485.2?mm, respectively. Out of six models, ETo of Modified Penman and Pan Evaporation methods were very much close to lysimeter ETc, but the coefficient of variation was very high, i.e., 43.05% and 23.91%, respectively. But in the Hargreaves and Blaney Criddle methods, the coefficient of variation was low, i.e., 15.97% and 12.6%, respectively. Besides low coefficient of variation, these two methods require limited meteorological parameters such as minimum and maximum temperature, radiation. For generating these parameters even at regional level, minimum expenditure is involved. The crop coefficient (Kc) estimated by Hargreaves (Kc 0.90) and the Blaney Criddle (0.87) model for the entire growing season was very much close to the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) 56 model, and this can be used for estimating the irrigation requirement of red gram.     

The use of surface resistance—soil moisture relationships in soil water budget models

An important feature of a soil water budget is the reduction of transpiration from a canopy below the rate of atmospheric demand with increasing soil dryness. Commonly, an empirical relationship between the ratio of actual evaporation (AE) to potential evaporation (PE) and soil water storage is adopted. Alternatively the Penman—Monteith equation can be used with a specified relationship between surface resistance and soil water storage.Using actual evaporation rates determined from instrumented soil water profiles, a relationship between surface resistance and soil water storage can be inferred, and results are presented for different crops and soil-types in the United Kingdom. These results are compared with the surface resistance values implicit in the performance of two layer soil moisture models adopting an empirical AE/PE relationship with soil moisture deficit. The performance of the two approaches with respect to soil moisture estimation is compared.     

Crop evapotranspiration of chilli in the tropics

Abstract

The rate of crop evapotranspiration though can be predicted theoretically but the actual field study would give a more accurate data. Result from a simple lysimeter study showed that the daily rate of actual crops evapotranspiration, ETa of chilli (Capsicum annum) under the tropical condition was in the range between 4.94–7.72 mm. Their actual crop evapotranspiration/ reference crop evapotranspiration ratio, ETa/ETo ratio was between 0.94 to 1.76 depending on the growth stages of the crops. The estimated monthly value of ETo using Blaney‐Criddle was about 5 mm/day.     

Forecasting daily reference evapotranspiration using the Blaney–Criddle model and temperature forecasts

Accurate daily reference evapotranspiration (ET_o) forecast is essential for real-time irrigation scheduling. An attempt was made to forecast ET_o using the Blaney–Criddle (BC) model and temperature forecasts in this study. Daily meteorological data for the period 2000–2014 at five stations in East China were collected to calibrate and validate the BC model against the FAO56 Penman–Monteith (FAO56-PM) model. Temperature forecasts up to 7 days’ lead time for 2012–2014 were input to the calibrated BC model to forecast ET_o. It is found that the performance of the BC model for ET_o forecast is further improved at all stations after monthly calibration. Average accuracy of forecasted ET_o (error within 1.5 mm d^?1) ranged from 82.7% to 89.3%, average values of mean absolute error (MAE) varied between 0.73 and 0.82 mm d^?1, average values of root mean square error (RMSE) ranged from 0.95 to 1.08 mm d^?1, and average values of the correlation coefficient (R) and concordance index (d) were more than 0.75 and 0.89, respectively. Furthermore, the error in ET_o forecast caused by error in temperature forecast is acceptable. The encouraging results indicate that the proposed method can be an alternative and effective solution for forecasting daily ET_o in East China.     

甘肃地区参考作物蒸散量时空变化研究

区域水土平衡模型的建立通常需要确定计算参考作物蒸散量的模型,这一模型的精确与否,直接影响整体预测模型的最终预报精度.运用FAO-24 Blaney-Criddle法、FAO-24 Radiation法、FAO PPP-17 Penman法及FAO Penman-Monteith(98) 4种方法,对甘肃省1981～2000年33个站点的月参考作物蒸散量进行了计算.对比分析结果表明,AO Penman-Monteith(98)模型的精度与灵敏度均显示了较强的优越性.运用该模型对甘肃省参考作物蒸散量的时空分布特征进行研究表明:甘肃省参考作物蒸散量年内逐月演变曲线呈单峰状;年际蒸散量变化与夏季年际波动变化存在较高一致性;全年参考作物蒸散量分布具有从东南向西北递增的趋势.     

江西省域蒸发皿蒸发量变化特征及其成因

为了探讨气候变化对陆面水文过程的影响,该文利用江西省79个气象站1960－2005年的常规观测资料为基础,结合修正的Penman公式,得出了日照百分率、风速、实际水汽压、最低温度、最高温度变化对蒸发皿年蒸发量变化的贡献。结果表明：在过去46 a中,全流域的平均蒸发皿年蒸发量呈显著下降趋势,其速率为-4.57 mm/a;日照百分率和风速的减小是导致流域平均蒸发皿年蒸发量下降的主要因子,其贡献分别为-2.06、-2.58 mm/a,实际水汽压的减小、最低温度和最高温度的升高导致流域平均蒸发皿年蒸发量上升,但作用相对较小,分别为0.12、0.50、0.30 mm/a,各占观测的蒸发皿年蒸发量变化趋势的45.08%、56.46%、-2.63%、-10.94%、-6.57%。因此,影响江西省蒸发皿年蒸发量变化的气候因子的主次关系为：风速＞日照百分率＞最低温度＞最高温度＞实际水汽压。     

Evaluation of some equations for estimating evapotranspiration in the south of Iran

The Penman–Monteith (PM) equation is the most common method of estimating reference crop evapotranspiration (ET _o) for different climates of the world. This equation needs full weather data, however, few stations with complete weather data exist in Fars Province, in the south of Iran. Therefore, other equations based on more readily available weather data, such as temperature and rainfall, can be used instead of the PM equation in Fars Province. Four calibrated equations have been proposed in previous studies for Fars Province using weather data up to 2000. These equations were the Hargreaves equation (H), a new equation based on monthly temperature and rainfall (R), the Thornthwaite equation (T) and the Blaney–Criddle equation (B). Using weather data for 2001 to 2006 from 14 stations in Fars Province and outside the province, this study determined the best equations for estimating ET _o in each month and each station, rather than using the PM equation. The results revealed that equations H, R, T and B showed a good correlation to the PM equation, and can be used to estimate monthly ET _o in the study area. Also, the best equation for each location in Fars Province in each month of the year can be determined by using prepared distribution maps. Furthermore, the results showed that there was no specific relationship between the climate at the station and the best equation for estimating ET _o.     

Simulating sunflower canopy temperatures to infer root-zone soil water potential

A soil—plant—atmosphere model for sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), together with clear sky weather data for several days, is used to study the relationship between canopy temperature and root-zone soil water potential. Considering the empirical dependence of stomatal resistance on insolation, air temperature and leaf water potential, a continuity equation for water flux in the soil—plant—atmosphere system is solved for the leaf water potential. The transpirational flux is calculated using Monteith's combination equation, while the canopy temperature is calculated from the energy balance equation. The simulation shows that, at high soil water potentials, canopy temperature is determined primarily by air and dew point temperatures. These results agree with an empirically derived linear regression equation relating canopy-air temperature differential to air vapor pressure deficit. The model predictions of leaf water potential are also in agreement with observations, indicating that measurements of canopy temperature together with a knowledge of air and dew point temperatures can provide a reliable estimate of the root-zone soil water potential.     

Evaluation of pan coefficient equations for estimating reference crop evapotranspiration in the arid region

Reference evapotranspiration (ET₀) can be estimated on basis of pan evaporation data (E_pan), whose measurements have the advantage of low cost, simplicity of the measuring equipment, simple data interpretation and application as well as suitability for locations with limited availability of meteorological data. E_pan values were converted to ET₀ using the pan evaporation coefficient (K_pan). In this study, seven common K_pan equations were evaluated for prediction of ET₀ in the growing season (April to October) in arid region of Iran. The Cuenca approach was best suited compared to the standard FAO Penman–Monteith method (FAO-56 PM).     

Estimating evaporation: A comparison between Penman, Idso-Jackson, and zero-flux methods

A field evaporation—drainage study was conducted to compare three methods of predicting evaporative losses from a bare soil. Two of the methods (modified Penman combination and Idso—Jackson) are dependent only on measurements of atmospheric parameters whereas the third method (plane of zero flux) is dependent only on measurements of soil parameters.A Captina soil profile was wet up and allowed to dry by evaporation and drainage. For the initial two days after infiltration ceased all three methods predicted similar evaporative losses. Differences between the three methods occurred when the soil moisture content at the soil surface controlled the evaporation rates. Under the three drying conditions the three methods behaved somewhat differently in the prediction of the amounts of water evaporated from the soil surface. Lower losses by evaporation were predicted by the Idso—Jackson and zero-flux methods. In the case of the Idso—Jackson method this result was attributed to the influence of clouds on albedo, the impact of wind and the importance of albedo in the predictive equation. For the zero-flux method the decrease in evaporation was due to lower soil water contents and matrix potentials near the surface which resulted in lower transport rates of water to the surface.     

参考作物腾发量计算方法在新疆地区的适用性研究

新疆维吾尔族自治区地域辽阔，气候特征空间差异性显著。准确估算各地区的参考作物腾发量(ET₀)是新疆节水灌溉设计的基础。该文选用6种计算公式利用新疆4个典型气候区的气象资料计算了ET₀。并以Penman-Monteith方法作为标准，对其它方法进行评价。结果表明在新疆各气候区1948Penman法估算的ET₀值较FAO-24 Penman与FAO-24 Radiation方法更接近于P-M法的计算结果；在缺少资料的地区，Hargreaves方法或湿润区用Priestley-Taylor方法均可以得到与P-M法估值相当的结果；同时分析了P-M法计算的ET₀值和水面蒸发量之间的关系，为利用水面蒸发资料估算新疆地区ET₀值提供参考。     

THE WATER BALANCE OF AN AGRICULTURAL CATCHMENT III THE WATER BALANCE

The catchment of the Kingston Brook has an area of 57 km², mainly under pasture (56%) and arable crops (36%). Changes of soil water content, measured with a neutron probe from April 1969 to March 1973, were analysed to determine evaporation (summer only) and drainage. From measurements of rainfall and runoff, supplemented by Penman estimates of evaporation (in winter), water storage is estimated month by month. Annual mean values (mm) were: rainfall (559), evaporation (398), runoff (157). During the summer, the measured decrease in soil water storage contributed ca 100 mm to evaporation and drainage and there is evidence of delayed recharge (about 30 mm) during the winter. A linear relation between annual rainfall and annual runoff is interpreted in terms of (i) a fixed catchment storage (125 mm); (ii) a small and nearly constant winter evaporation (ca 49mm); (iii) summer evaporation of 125 mm from storage plus a constant fraction (0.57) of contemporary precipitation. Summer evaporation was restricted by the supply of rain in every year from 1969 to 1976. By estimation, 500 mm of summer rain is needed to maintain potential evaporation, and the deficit at which actual evaporation falls below the potential rate was about 40 mm. Replacing the pasture by cereals would increase runoff by about 10% because of the shorter growing season.     

Comparison of two computer models for predicting soil water in a tropical monsoon climate

A physical soil water model, based on Darcy's Law and the continuity equation, and a water budget model were tested for three crops grown in the humid coastal zone of northeastern Brazil. Both models required daily information on precipitation, class A pan evaporation, and used Soil Conservation Service curves to estimate runoff. Crop canopy and rooting characteristics, needed on a daily basis, were similar for both models. Both models predicted soil water contents that compared favorably with measured values, and predicted evapotranspiration and drainage were probably superior to estimates from water balance calculations based on periodic measurements of soil water content and suction. The water budget model would have been improved if the “field capacity” had been based on the highest measured water contents in the rainy season. The models were more sensitive to rooting depth than to root distribution. Rate of canopy development had little effect on predicted drainage and evapotranspiration, but significantly changed the ratio of evaporation to transpiration.     

杨树防护林土壤蒸发及其影响因素

[目的] 研究杨树林地土壤蒸发规律,探索估算林下土壤蒸发量的方法,为林业高效用水和研究水循环规律提供理论支撑。[方法] 利用20 cm蒸发皿和微型蒸发器测量杨树林下水面和土壤蒸发量,分析气象要素与林下土壤和水面蒸发的关系。测量土面温度和蒸发皿水体温度,计算两者温度差相对值（RT）,以水面蒸发量为参考计算土壤相对蒸发量（RE）,分析RE与RT的关系,进而建立估算土壤蒸发量的经验公式。[结果] 太阳辐射是影响林下土壤及水面蒸发量最主要的因素,温度、相对湿度和风速等气象要素与土壤蒸发的相关性较差;随着林下土壤与水面温度差相对值RT的增大,相对蒸发量RE逐渐减小,当RT增大到约0.11后,RE趋近于常数0.164,认为此时土壤的蒸发已经进入到水汽扩散阶段。[结论] 杨树防护林下土壤相对蒸发量随土壤与水体温度差相对值的增加而逐渐减小,后趋于常数。经验证本研究提出的方法和建立的公式可较好地估算土壤蒸发,为土壤蒸发量的原位测算提供了新的手段。     

基于5变量局部薄盘光滑样条函数的蒸发空间插值

 高分辨率、栅格化的气候数据作为环境因子是地学模型和气候模型等相关研究的重要参数,国内外的研究多集中于温度、降水等气象要素,对陆面蒸发空间化研究较少。对黄土高原多沙粗沙区及周围共计53个气象站点(多沙粗沙区30个)蒸发皿测量值EE进行空间插值,以5变量局部薄盘样条函数(经纬度为自变量,净辐射、水气压差和风速为协变量),建立具有多元线性子模型的蒸发插值模型,以ANUSPLIN为实现软件,生成连续21年共252个蒸发表面。交叉验证表明:引入蒸发影响因子作为协变量线性子模型进行表面插值能显著提高插值精度,夏季提高幅度更大,拟合表面具有较高的精确度与平滑度。蒸发随协变量的变率显示,在多沙粗沙区,水气压差是夏季蒸发的主要控制因素,风速对蒸发的影响冬季稍强一些,净辐射的影响没有明显的季节性,只在春分和秋分时节有微小提高。     

基于称重式蒸渗仪实测日值评价16种参考作物蒸散量(ET_0)模型

参考作物蒸散量(ET_0)的准确估算是作物需水量及区域农业水分供需计算的关键,尽管已提出大量方法,但缺乏基于实测值的严格检验。本文利用北京小汤山2012年称重式蒸渗仪实测日值,检验16个ET_0模型,包括5个综合法、6个辐射法、5个温度法模型。依据均方根误差RMSE值,各模型估算效果的排序为FAO79 Penman=1963 Peman1996 Kimberly PenmanFAO24 PenmanFAO56 Penman-Monteith(PM)TurcFAO24 Blaney-Criddle(BC)DeBruin-KeijmanJensen-HaisePriestley-Taylor(PT)FAO24RadiationHargreavesMakkinkHamonMcloudBlaney-Criddle(BC)。总体而言,综合法表现最好,其RMSE在1.33~1.47mm·d~(-1),以FAO79 Penman和1963 Penman为最好;辐射法次之,其RMSE在1.48~1.77mm·d~(-1),以Turc最好;温度法检验效果最差,其RMSE在1.50~2.68mm·d~(-1),以FAO24 BC为最好。FAO79Penman和1963 Penman比最好的辐射法和温度法模型的精度分别高10%和13%。综合法、辐射法模型普适性好于温度法的原因在于其均含有影响ET_0的关键因子——辐射或饱和水汽压差VPD。所有模型均具有低蒸发条件下高估、高蒸发条件下低估的阈值特点,综合法及辐射法平均低估0.14mm·d~(-1)和0.33mm·d~(-1),而温度法平均高估0.52mm·d~(-1)。前两类方法 ET_0阈值相对较低,更适于低蒸发力条件,而温度法较适于高蒸发力条件。所有综合法、辐射法模型及温度法的Hargreaves和FAO24 BC法估算值与实测值变化趋势一致,说明模型结构合理,可通过参数校正提高精度;但对于与实测值趋势不吻合的温度法,模型结构尚需优化。VPD和最大湿度RHx是影响综合法、辐射法估算偏差的两大主要因子,其中VPD对低估类模型偏差影响最大,且偏差随着VPD增加而增大;而RHx对高估类综合法模型(1963 Penman、FAO79 Penman)偏差影响最大,且偏差随RHx增加而减小。校正后的PT(1.38)、Makkink(0.83)、Turc(0.014)及Hamon(1.248)系数大于原系数,而Hargreaves(0.0019)和BC(0.192)校正系数低于原系数。此外,PT与Hamon的系数利用最小相对湿度、Turc和Makkink系数利用VPD、Hargreaves和BC系数利用辐射或日照时数能得到最佳估算。FAO56 PM表现不佳(RMSE=1.47mm·d~(-1))的原因与站点气候干燥程度、较低的空气动力项权重有关。后人对原始Penman式的诸多修正并没有显著改善精度,因此建议在类似气候条件地区继续使用老版本Penman式。同时,对FAO56 PM的进一步检验将有助于回答"FAO56 PM是否真正比其它综合法具有优势,在何种气候下表现好,在高蒸发条件下低估是否为普遍现象"等科学问题。     

Estimation of evaporation using a dual-beam surface layer scintillometer and component energy balance measurements

A dual-beam surface layer scintillometer (SLS), for the estimation of sensible heat flux density H for a path length of 101 m, was used in a mixed grassland community in the eastern seaboard of South Africa for 30 months. Measurements also included Bowen ratio (BR) and eddy covariance (EC) estimates of H. Acceptable SLS data between 0600 h and 1800 h, judged by the percent of error-free 1 kHz data exceeding 25% and an inner scale of turbulence exceeding 2 mm, showed little seasonal variation and was consistently high—between 86.7% and 94.8%. An analysis of the various Monin–Obukhov similarity theory (MOST) empirical dimensionless stability functions used for estimating H from the SLS measurements showed percent differences in H that varied from ?30% to 28% for neutral to unstable conditions, respectively and for stable continuous conditions the differences in H were within 60 W m^?2 with much larger differences for stable sporadic conditions. The good agreement in measurements of H over an extended period for the SLS, BR and EC methods demonstrates the applicability and robustness of the SLS method and the associated MOST empirical functions used for estimating H for a range of canopy heights, stability conditions and diurnal and seasonal weather conditions. Furthermore, there was no evidence for an underestimation in EC sensible heat compared to SLS and BR measurements, which implies that any lack of energy balance closure points to possible latent energy EC underestimation or due to energy fluxes not included in the shortened energy balance if the net irradiance and soil heat flux components are correct. A sensitivity analysis was used to determine the relative importance of the SLS data inputs of air temperature, atmospheric pressure, beam path length and beam height on H estimates. Worst-case errors in air temperature, atmospheric pressure, beam path length and beam height resulted in errors in H within 1.0%, 1.3%, 3.0% and 4.0%, respectively. Overall, the worst-case total percent error in SLS-estimated H is within 5.3% and the typical percent error is within 3.9%. Accounting for the error in net irradiance and soil heat flux measurements, the seasonal variation in the error in daily evaporation estimated as a residual of the energy balance is generally less than 0.2 mm (0.49 MJ m^?2) in winter when the daily evaporation was about 1 mm (2.45 MJ m^?2) and typically less than 0.4 mm (0.98 MJ m^?2) when the evaporation exceeded 4 mm (9.8 MJ m^?2). Soil heat flux density measurements can contribute significantly to the overall error.     

Resolving systematic errors in estimates of net ecosystem exchange of CO2 and ecosystem respiration in a tropical forest biome

The controls on uptake and release of CO₂ by tropical rainforests, and the responses to a changing climate, are major uncertainties in global climate change models. Eddy-covariance measurements potentially provide detailed data on CO₂ exchange and responses to the environment in these forests, but accurate estimates of the net ecosystem exchange of CO₂ (NEE) and ecosystem respiration (R_eco) require careful analysis of data representativity, treatment of data gaps, and correction for systematic errors. This study uses the comprehensive data from our study site in an old-growth tropical rainforest near Santarem, Brazil, to examine the biases in NEE and R_eco potentially associated with the two most important sources of systematic error in Eddy-covariance data: lost nighttime flux and missing canopy storage measurements. We present multiple estimates for the net carbon balance and R_eco at our site, including the conventional “u* filter”, a detailed bottom-up budget for respiration, estimates by similarity with ²²²Rn, and an independent estimate of respiration by extrapolation of daytime Eddy flux data to zero light. Eddy-covariance measurements between 2002 and 2006 showed a mean net ecosystem carbon loss of 0.25 ± 0.04 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹, with a mean respiration rate of 8.60 ± 0.11 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ at our site. We found that lost nocturnal flux can potentially introduce significant bias into these results. We develop robust approaches to correct for these biases, showing that, where appropriate, a site-specific u* threshold can be used to avoid systematic bias in estimates of carbon exchange. Because of the presence of gaps in the data and the day–night asymmetry between storage and turbulence, inclusion of canopy storage is essential to accurate assessments of NEE. We found that short-term measurements of storage may be adequate to accurately model storage for use in obtaining ecosystem carbon balance, at sites where storage is not routinely measured. The analytical framework utilized in this study can be applied to other Eddy-covariance sites to help correct and validate measurements of the carbon cycle and its components.     

Characterizing the impact of diffusive and advective soil gas transport on the measurement and interpretation of the isotopic signal of soil respiration

By measuring the isotopic signature of soil respiration, we seek to learn the isotopic composition of the carbon respired in the soil (δ¹³C_R-s) so that we may draw inferences about ecosystem processes. Requisite to this goal is the need to understand how δ¹³C_R-s is affected by both contributions of multiple carbon sources to respiration and fractionation due to soil gas transport. In this study, we measured potential isotopic sources to determine their contributions to δ¹³C_R-s and we performed a series of experiments to investigate the impact of soil gas transport on δ¹³C_R-s estimates. The objectives of these experiments were to: i) compare estimates of δ¹³C_R-s derived from aboveground and belowground techniques, ii) evaluate the roles of diffusion and advection in a forest soil on the estimates of δ¹³C_R-s, and iii) determine the contribution of new and old carbon sources to δ¹³C_R-s for a Douglas-fir stand in the Pacific Northwest during our measurement period. We found a maximum difference of −2.36‰ between estimates of δ¹³C_R-s based on aboveground vs. belowground measurements; the aboveground estimate was enriched relative to the belowground estimate. Soil gas transport during the experiment was primarily by diffusion and the average belowground estimate of δ¹³C_R-s was enriched by 3.8-4.0‰ with respect to the source estimates from steady-state transport models. The affect of natural fluctuations in advective soil gas transport was little to non-existent; however, an advection-diffusion model was more accurate than a model based solely on diffusion in predicting the isotopic samples near the soil surface. Thus, estimates made from belowground gas samples will improve with an increase in samples near the soil surface. We measured a −1‰ difference in δ¹³C_R-s as a result of an experiment where advection was induced, a value which may represent an upper limit in fractionation due to advective gas transport in forest ecosystems. We found that aboveground measurements of δ¹³C_R-s may be particularly susceptible to atmospheric incursion, which may produce estimates that are enriched in ¹³C. The partitioning results attributed 69-98% of soil respiration to a source with a highly depleted isotopic signature similar to that of water-soluble carbon from foliage measured at our site.