Lymphocyte sequestration through S1P lyase inhibition and disruption of S1P gradients

Lymphocyte egress from the thymus and from peripheral lymphoid organs depends on sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) receptor-1 and is thought to occur in response to circulatory S1P. However, the existence of an S1P gradient between lymphoid organs and blood or lymph has not been established. To further define egress requirements, we addressed why treatment with the food colorant 2-acetyl-4-tetrahydroxybutylimidazole (THI) induces lymphopenia. We found that S1P abundance in lymphoid tissues of mice is normally low but increases more than 100-fold after THI treatment and that this treatment inhibits the S1P-degrading enzyme S1P lyase. We conclude that lymphocyte egress is mediated by S1P gradients that are established by S1P lyase activity and that the lyase may represent a novel immunosuppressant drug target.     

Alteration of lymphocyte trafficking by sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor agonists

Blood lymphocyte numbers, essential for the development of efficient immune responses, are maintained by recirculation through secondary lymphoid organs. We show that lymphocyte trafficking is altered by the lysophospholipid sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) and by a phosphoryl metabolite of the immunosuppressive agent FTY720. Both species were high-affinity agonists of at least four of the five S1P receptors. These agonists produce lymphopenia in blood and thoracic duct lymph by sequestration of lymphocytes in lymph nodes, but not spleen. S1P receptor agonists induced emptying of lymphoid sinuses by retention of lymphocytes on the abluminal side of sinus-lining endothelium and inhibition of egress into lymph. Inhibition of lymphocyte recirculation by activation of S1P receptors may result in therapeutically useful immunosuppression.     

Promotion of lymphocyte egress into blood and lymph by distinct sources of sphingosine-1-phosphate

Lymphocytes require sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) receptor-1 to exit lymphoid organs, but the source(s) of extracellular S1P and whether S1P directly promotes egress are unknown. By using mice in which the two kinases that generate S1P were conditionally ablated, we find that plasma S1P is mainly hematopoietic in origin, with erythrocytes a major contributor, whereas lymph S1P is from a distinct radiation-resistant source. Lymphocyte egress from thymus and secondary lymphoid organs was markedly reduced in kinase-deficient mice. Restoration of S1P to plasma rescued egress to blood but not lymph, and the rescue required lymphocyte expression of S1P-receptor-1. Thus, separate sources provide S1P to plasma and lymph to help lymphocytes exit the low-S1P environment of lymphoid organs. Disruption of compartmentalized S1P signaling is a plausible mechanism by which S1P-receptor-1 agonists function as immunosuppressives.     

Involvement of sialic acid on endothelial cells in organ-specific lymphocyte recirculation

Mouse lymphocytes incubated on cryostat-cut sections of lymphoid organs (lymph nodes and Peyer's patches) specifically adhere to the endothelium of high endothelial venules (HEV), the specialized blood vessels to which recirculating lymphocytes attach as they migrate from the blood into the parenchyma of the lymphoid organs. Treatment of sections with sialidase eliminated the binding of lymphocytes to peripheral lymph node HEV, had no effect on binding to Peyer's patch HEV, and had an intermediate effect on mesenteric lymph node HEV. These results suggest that sialic acid on endothelial cells may be an organ-specific recognition determinant for lymphocyte attachment.     

Human lymphocytes making rheumatoid factor and antibody to ssDNA belong to Leu-1+ B-cell subset

B lymphocytes bearing the Leu-1 cell-surface antigen (Leu-1+), the human equivalent of mouse Ly-1+ B lymphocytes, have been detected in human peripheral blood, but there is little information on their frequency and properties. Analysis by fluorescence-activated cell sorter and double immunofluorescence showed that Leu-1+ B cells are consistently present in the peripheral blood and spleens of healthy subjects and constitute 17.0 +/- 5.0% (mean value +/- standard deviation) and 17.3 +/- 3.9%, respectively, of total B cells. When purified Leu-1+ and Leu-1- B lymphocytes were transformed into immunoglobulin-secreting cells by infection with Epstein-Barr virus and the culture fluids were tested for reactivity with self-antigens, at least two important autoantibodies, antibody to the Fc fragment of human immunoglobulin G (rheumatoid factor) and antibody to single-stranded DNA, were found to be made exclusively by Leu-1+ B cells. It is concluded that the Leu-1+ lymphocytes represent a major subset of the normal human B cell repertoire and include the B cells capable of making autoantibodies similar to those found in systemic lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis.     

Effect of Copper Toxicity on Lymphoid Organs in Broilers

The experiment was conducted to examine the effect of copper toxicity on lymphoid organs by experimental pathology and flow cytometry (FCM). 180 one-day-old Avian broilers were divided into three groups, and fed diets as follows: 1) Control(Cu 11.97 mg kg-1 diet), 2) Cu- toxic group Ⅰ (Cu 650 mg kg-1) and 3) Cu- toxic group Ⅱ (Cu 850 mg kg-1) for six weeks.Compared with the control, the growth index of the thymus, spleen and bursa of Fabricius were markedly reduced (P＜0.05or P＜0.01), the G0/G1 phase of cell cycles of the thymus, spleen and bursa of Fabricius was higher (P＜0.05 or P＜0.01), while the S phase and proliferating index were lower (P＜0.05 or P＜0.01)in both Cu-toxic group Ⅰ and Cu-toxic group Ⅱ. The results demonstrated that Cu toxicity seriously impaired the progression of lymphocytes from the G0/G1 phase to the S phase, inhibited the growth and development of lymphoid organs.     

A distinct endothelial cell recognition system that controls lymphocyte traffic into inflamed synovium

Lymphocytes are essential mediators of normal tissue inflammatory reactions and of pathologic tissue damage in, for example, rheumatoid arthritis and other autoimmune diseases. In a study of the mechanisms controlling lymphocyte entry into sites of inflammation from the blood, the function and specificity of lymphocyte-endothelial interactions were examined in inflamed joint tissue (synovium) from patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Synovial high endothelial venules (HEV) supported the binding of normal peripheral blood lymphocytes in vitro. The characteristics of this binding, which were similar to those of lymphocyte-HEV interactions controlling lymphocyte migration into organized lymphoid tissues, included a requirement for calcium ions, a dependence on metabolic activity, and a preferential adherence of circulating lymphocytes as opposed to immature thymocytes. However, the binding of lymphocytes to synovial HEV was not inhibited by a monoclonal antibody to lymphocyte receptors for lymph node HEV, and synovial HEV failed to bind either lymph node HEV-specific or mucosal HEV-specific B lymphoblastoid cells. The results suggest that a lymphocyte-endothelial cell recognition system that is distinct from such systems in organized lymphoid tissues directs the extravasation of normal lymphocytes as well as pathologically important effector cells into inflamed synovium.     

The role of CCR7 in TH1 and TH2 cell localization and delivery of B cell help in vivo

Subsets of murine CD4+ T cells localize to different areas of the spleen after adoptive transfer. Na?ve and T helper 1 (TH1) cells, which express the chemokine receptor CCR7, are home to the periarteriolar lymphoid sheath, whereas activated TH2 cells, which lack CCR7, form rings at the periphery of the T cell zones near B cell follicles. Retroviral transduction of TH2 cells with CCR7 forces them to localize in a TH1-like pattern and inhibits their participation in B cell help in vivo but not in vitro. Thus, differential expression of chemokine receptors results in unique cellular migration patterns that are important for effective immune responses.     

Keeping G proteins at bay: a complex between G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 and Gbetagamma

The phosphorylation of heptahelical receptors by heterotrimeric guanine nucleotide-binding protein (G protein)-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs) is a universal regulatory mechanism that leads to desensitization of G protein signaling and to the activation of alternative signaling pathways. We determined the crystallographic structure of bovine GRK2 in complex with G protein beta1gamma2 subunits. Our results show how the three domains of GRK2-the RGS (regulator of G protein signaling) homology, protein kinase, and pleckstrin homology domains-integrate their respective activities and recruit the enzyme to the cell membrane in an orientation that not only facilitates receptor phosphorylation, but also allows for the simultaneous inhibition of signaling by Galpha and Gbetagamma subunits.     

T-Independent immune response: new aspects of B cell biology

Recent results emphasize the roles of T-independent antibody response in humoral defenses, for which B1 cells and marginal zone B cells are mostly responsible. We discuss how these cells are activated, migrate, and differentiate into antibody-producing cells in various lymphoid tissues. Based on recent findings in each of these areas of B cell biology, we propose a possible mechanism for peripheral tolerance of autoreactive B cells at target organs.     

Snapshot of activated G proteins at the membrane: the Galphaq-GRK2-Gbetagamma complex

G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 (GRK2) plays a key role in the desensitization of G protein-coupled receptor signaling by phosphorylating activated heptahelical receptors and by sequestering heterotrimeric G proteins. We report the atomic structure of GRK2 in complex with Galphaq and Gbetagamma, in which the activated Galpha subunit of Gq is fully dissociated from Gbetagamma and dramatically reoriented from its position in the inactive Galphabetagamma heterotrimer. Galphaq forms an effector-like interaction with the GRK2 regulator of G protein signaling (RGS) homology domain that is distinct from and does not overlap with that used to bind RGS proteins such as RGS4.     

Unexpectedly high levels of HIV-1 RNA and protein synthesis in a cytocidal infection

The expression of a laboratory strain of HIV-1 (HTLV-IIIB) has been studied in mitogen-stimulated peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBLs) and in two lymphoid cell lines (CEM cells and C8166 cells). HIV-expressing cells contained from 300,000 to 2,500,000 copies of viral RNA per cell. Near-synchronous expression of an active infection could be achieved in C8166 cells. In these cells, the high copy numbers of viral RNA used as much as 40% of total protein synthesis for the production of viral gag protein, with high levels of viral RNA and protein synthesis preceding cell death by 2 to 4 days.     

Rheumatoid factor secretion from human Leu-1+ B cells

A human B cell subpopulation identifiable by the expression of the cell surface antigen Leu-1 (CD5) is responsible for most of the immunoglobulin M rheumatoid factor secreted in vitro after the cells are stimulated with Staphylococcus aureus. The ability of B cells bearing the Leu-1 marker (Leu-1+) to secrete rheumatoid factor is present early in development and extends to adulthood, since Leu-1+ B cells from cord blood and from peripheral blood lymphocytes of both normal adults and patients with certain autoimmune conditions secrete rheumatoid factor in comparable amounts. The neonatal enrichment of Leu-1+ B cells, the presence of Leu-1+ B cells in increased frequencies in patients with autoimmune disease, and the involvement of Leu-1+ B cells in autoantibody secretion suggest both developmental and functional homologies between this human B cell subpopulation and the murine Ly-1 B cell subpopulation.     

Effect of Zinc Toxicity on Lymphoid Organs in Chickens

The experiment was conducted with the objective of studies on effects of zinc toxicity on lymphoid organs by the methods of experimental pathology and flow cytometry (FCM). 200one-day-old Avian broilers were divided into four groups randomly, and fed on diets as follows: controls (Zn 100mg kg-1)and zinc toxic (Zn 1 500mg kg-1, zinc toxic group Ⅰ; Zn 2 000 mg kg-1, zinc toxic group Ⅱ; Zn 2 500 mg kg-1, zinc toxic group Ⅲ) for seven weeks. The weight and growth index of the thymus, spleen and bursa of Fabricius were reduced in both zinc toxic group Ⅱ and zinc toxic group Ⅲ when compared with those of control group. The G0/G1 phase of the cell cycles of the lymphoid organs was higher, and S, G2+M phases lower in zinc toxic groups Ⅱ and Ⅲ than in control group. Lymphocytes were depleted and degenerate in the lymphoid organs. The reticular cells of the bursa of Fabricius proliferated and the reticular cells of the thymus were also degenerate and necrotic,particularly in zinc toxic groups Ⅱ and Ⅲ. The results demonstrated that more than 1 500 mg kg-1 impaired the progression of lymphocytes from the G0/G1 phase to S phase obviously, inhibited the development of lymphoid organs and caused marked pathological changes in the lymphoid organs. Potential mechanisms underlying these observations are also discussed.     

ATP release guides neutrophil chemotaxis via P2Y2 and A3 receptors

Cells must amplify external signals to orient and migrate in chemotactic gradient fields. We find that human neutrophils release adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from the leading edge of the cell surface to amplify chemotactic signals and direct cell orientation by feedback through P2Y2 nucleotide receptors. Neutrophils rapidly hydrolyze released ATP to adenosine that then acts via A3-type adenosine receptors, which are recruited to the leading edge, to promote cell migration. Thus, ATP release and autocrine feedback through P2Y2 and A3 receptors provide signal amplification, controlling gradient sensing and migration of neutrophils.     

Thymotaxin, a chemotactic protein, is identical to beta 2-microglobulin

Thymotaxin, an 11-kilodalton protein chemotactic for rat bone marrow hematopoietic precursors, was purified from media conditioned by a rat thymic epithelial cell line. The NH2-terminal sequence of thymotaxin was identical to that of rat beta 2-microglobulin (beta 2m). Antibodies to beta 2m removed thymotaxin activity from the fraction containing the 11-kilodalton protein. Chemotactic activity was observed with rat plasma beta 2m, human beta 2m, and mouse recombinant beta 2m, further supporting the identity of thymotaxin with beta 2m. The directional migration, as opposed to random movement, of the cells was also confirmed. The only rat bone marrow cells that migrated toward beta 2m were Thy1+ immature lymphoid cells devoid of T cell, B cell, and myeloid cell differentiation markers.     

感染传染性法氏囊病毒雏鸡新城疫疫苗二次免疫的免疫增强效应

本实验以 IBDV 感染1日龄滨白雏鸡,在感染鸡14和28日龄或14日龄时点眼,滴鼻接种 Lasota 疫苗,测定了其外周血液、泪液、气管液、肠液、胆汁中 IgG,IgM 和 IgA 含量,血清、泪液、气管液 HI 滴度、血液 T 细胞免疫功能和脾脏 B 细胞抗体生成功能、血液 T、B 细胞和淋巴细胞数量以及法氏囊、胸腺、脾脏、盲肠扁桃体、哈德尔腺、丕氏斑、十二指肠、支气管粘膜的浆细胞和酸性α-萘酚酯酶阳性 T 细胞(ANAE~+T)数量的动态变化,结果表明:1.1 日龄感染 IBDV 雏鸡 ND 疫苗二次免疫后,其法氏囊,脾脏、哈德尔腺、支气管粘膜、盲肠扁桃体、丕氏斑、十二指肠粘膜固有层的浆细胞数量、外周血液 B 细胞数量均明显增高,脾脏 B 细胞抗体生成功能明显增强,血清、泪液、气管液中 IgG,IgA,IgM 含量和 HI 滴度、肠液、胆汁的 IgA,IgM,IgG 含量均显著高于感染一次免疫鸡,但明显低于健康对照二次免疫鸡。感染鸡 ND 二免后,法氏囊出现淋巴滤泡增生,脾脏和盲肠扁桃体的淋巴小结数量增多,直径增大。表明感染鸡 ND 二免后,其全身和消化道、呼吸道局部的体液免疫应答水平较感染一次免疫鸡明显增高,呈现免疫增强效应。2.感染鸡 ND 二免后,其免疫器官和消化道,呼吸道局部免疫组织的 ANAE~+T 细胞数量、外周血液 T 细胞数和免疫功能均较感染一免鸡明显升高。但显著低于对照 ND 二免鸡,证明感染鸡 ND 二免后,其全身和消化道、呼吸道局部的细胞免疫应答较感染一免鸡显著增强。3.ND 强毒攻击后,感染二免鸡的免疫保护率明显高于感染一免鸡,低于对照二免鸡,表明 ND 二次免疫对 IBDV 感染鸡的免疫保护力具有明显的加强作用,这与其全身和消化道、呼吸道局部的体液免疫和细胞免疫应答增强密切相关。     

An essential role for BAFF in the normal development of B cells through a BCMA-independent pathway

The B cell activating factor BAFF (BlyS/TALL-1/zTNF4) is a tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-related ligand that promotes B cell survival and binds to three receptors (BCMA, TACI, and the recently described BAFF-R). Here we report an absolute requirement for BAFF in normal B cell development. Examination of secondary lymphoid organs from BAFF-deficient mice revealed an almost complete loss of follicular and marginal zone B lymphocytes. In contrast, mice lacking BCMA had normal-appearing B lymphocyte compartments. BAFF therefore plays a crucial role in B cell development and can function through receptors other than BCMA.     

唇?成鱼脾和肾的解剖学与组织学特征

采用解剖、石蜡切片及HE染色技术研究了唇?脾脏、头肾及中肾的解剖学与组织学特征。结果显示,唇?脾脏单个,暗红色,呈扁平椭圆形,脾实质被起自被膜的结缔组织隔膜分隔成许多小叶,小叶内红髓与白髓界限不明显,含红细胞、淋巴细胞及黑色素巨噬细胞等,血管丰富。肾脏可明显的分为头肾和中肾。头肾位于体腔前端的心腹隔膜上方,分左右两叶,对称分布。头肾实质部分无肾单位,主要由淋巴组织构成,分红细胞聚集区和白细胞聚集区,内含丰富的红细胞、淋巴细胞、粒细胞及一定数量的黑色素巨噬细胞,在细胞组成上与脾脏有类似特征。中肾位于鱼体的胸腹段,紧贴体腔背部脊椎两侧,实质部分主要由肾单位、集合管及淋巴组织等构成;淋巴组织在细胞组成上与头肾有相似之处,含红细胞、淋巴细胞、粒细胞及黑色素巨噬细胞。研究结果表明,唇?脾脏、头肾是机体重要的免疫和造血器官,中肾除了泌尿功能外,在免疫及造血中也发挥重要作用。