Comparative study of the forest transition pathways of nine Asia-Pacific countries

Forest transition (FT) over the last three decades has attracted much academic attention. In this paper we present a comparative study of FT to assess regional variety in nine countries in Asia: China, Japan, the Republic of Korea, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Laos and Vietnam, using data covering the years 1960–2010. This study's examination of changes in forest area demonstrates that Korea and Japan achieved FT before the 1980s, and that China, Vietnam, India and the Philippines achieved FT more recently, while Indonesia, Malaysia and Laos still experience forest cover decline. Economic development pathway and state forest policy pathway are most common in these nine countries. The globalization pathway is also found to contribute to FT, primarily in countries that are net importers of forest products. The land use intensification pathway is not identified in any of the nine countries. This study also observed that four countries (China, Vietnam, India and the Philippines) tend to achieve FT at relatively low income levels, which may point to the significance of state intervention in the region's countries via forest protection laws, national forest planning and afforestation programs.     

Economic globalization,trade and forest transition-the case of nine Asian countries

Previous studies have mostly focused on the links between the variability of trade of primary sector products and forest transition. This study more widely discusses the effects of economic globalization on forest transition, and explores the links between trade, adjustment of trade structure, FDI and forest transition in nine Asian countries. The study also expands the scope of forest transition study and integrates the analysis of both forest quantity and quality change in forest transition research. The result suggests that the proportion of forestry products in total exports has significantly negative effects on forest area, forest volume and forest density, while the total export value has positive effects on forest area and forest density. It indicates that one country or region may improve forest resources condition through upgrading the export structure by absorbing FDI in manufacturing and service sectors to develop export-oriented manufacturing and service industries. This study demonstrates the need to introduce forest quality analysis in forest transition study. It also indicates that when exploring the relationship between economic globalization and forest transition, one should consider the overall situations how one country participates in economic globalization and the development and adjustment of its industries in the process of economic integration.     

Non-timber forest products in transition economies: Innovation cases in selected SEE countries

Driven by political and economic reforms since 1990, the forestry sector in southeast European (SEE) countries has faced changes which have resulted, among others, in the rise of private businesses. Many of those businesses have demonstrated innovation in the sphere of non-timber forest products (NTFPs), although these products had been neglected in the past, and their potentials are still underestimated. Therefore, our aim was to get a better understanding of the innovation processes behind three case studies in selected SEE countries (Slovenia, Serbia and FYR Macedonia). For the purpose of this research, we conducted semi-structured qualitative interviews with people responsible for the selected innovation cases in three NTFP-based enterprises. The interviews revolved around questions related to the idea and product development, the firm foundation, the supporting and hindering factors and the actors and their roles in the entire process of business development. To understand the framework conditions, we interviewed representatives of the organizations that were in charge of supporting innovation and business development. The results show that several national policy programs (e.g., in the fields of SMEs, forestry and nature protection) form a framework for supporting NTFPs innovation. However, in all the selected countries, there were no policies specifically tailored for NTFPs. An analysis showed that these innovations were developed solely by the owners and their personal ideas, and most information and financing came from the businesses themselves. The innovation systems in the selected countries did not significantly contribute to the development and running of the businesses. The lessons provided by these cases can be significant for strengthening existing NTFP-related innovation systems and fostering their effectiveness in the future.     

Innovative use of forest policy instruments in countries with economies in transition: experience of the Baltic States

Policy tools form one of the key components in the forest policy process. The main objective of this paper was to highlight national innovations in application of forest policy tools, and in doing so, to present national decision-makers with a broader variety of instruments available for solving issues of concern in the national forest sectors. This study at a general level of classification found almost no differences between the sets of policy instruments used in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. However, analysis of individual elements comprising each forest policy tool led to the identification of some national peculiarities. Based on the differences in application of elements of individual policy tools, innovative approaches in individual countries were provided.     

试论我国林业由传统林业向现代林业的转变--学习江泽民总书记"八·五"批示的体会

江总书记“八五”批示、林业生态环境建设、现代林业和可持续发展的林业,这四者有着怎样的关联?下面的研究论文表明:现代林业的本质特征是可持续发展的林业,林业生态环境建设是现代林业的基础,我国生态环境建设的最终目标是实现“山川秀美”。     

Synergies among climate change and biodiversity conservation measures and policies in the forest sector: A case study of Southeast Asian countries

Forest conservation contributes to climate change mitigation, adaptation, and biodiversity/ecosystem conservation. To enhance the co-benefits of forest conservation, it is important to promote synergies among the three measures—mitigation, adaptation, and biodiversity/ecosystem conservation—in the forest sector and eliminate the overlaps among the three measures. However, limited research exists on the analysis of their synergies. This study explores the potential for synergy among the three forest sector measures, utilizing: 1) indicators that assess enabling conditions for synergies among the three measures at the different institutional levels of policies and strategies, institutional arrangements, and financing and programs/projects; and 2) case studies of five countries in Southeast Asia: Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam, Lao PDR, and Cambodia.This analysis shows that the five countries all require various changes at different institutional levels in order to enhance their synergy potentials. The findings indicate the importance of national actors, financial mechanisms, programs, and projects in addressing the three measures. In terms of national actors, Thailand has the highest synergy potential due to its national-level committees and a single ministry that addresses all three measures. To enhance their synergy potentials, the other countries need to create national-level committees that address the three measures, and/or they need to enhance collaboration between the various ministries that represent the environment and forestry issues. At the financing and program/project aspects, Vietnam has the highest synergy potential. The other four countries need to develop common national funds that finance the three measures and/or develop joint programs and projects that address the three measures simultaneously.     

Role of non-wood forest products for local livelihoods in countries with transition and market economies: case studies in Ukraine and Sweden

Abstract

The role of non-wood forest products (NWFPs) in local economies differ in time and space. We analysed Ukrainian and Swedish national policies and management rules related to the use of NWFPs, and described how different forest stakeholders utilised NWFPs in rural areas in Ukraine and Sweden. In total we interviewed 114 local forest stakeholders in one rural region's settlements in both countries. The topics for the field study were (1) the reasons and amounts of NWFPs harvested by different forest user categories; (2) traditional practices of NWFP use, including harvesting methods and (3) how these practices have changed over the past decades. At the national level, both countries allowed the utilisation of most NWFPs, did not regulate the use, and did not include NWFPs into forest management plans. In both case studies, historical use of NWFPs was intensive. This use remained important in Ukraine, but not in Sweden. Due to difficult economic transition in Ukraine, use of NWFPs by locals has increased. While hunting as a tradition was more popular in the Swedish case study, recreational use of forest was popular in both case studies. Finally, we discuss the role of NWFPs in countries with transition and market economies, and the extent to which the countries support sustainable use of NWFPs.     

Non-market forest ecosystem services and decision support in Nordic countries

The need to integrate non-market ecosystem services into decision-making is widely acknowledged. Despite the exponentially growing body of literature, trade-offs between services are still poorly understood. We conducted a systematic review of published literature in the Nordic countries (Denmark, Norway, Sweden and Finland) on the integration of non-market forest ecosystem services into decision-making. The aim of the review was two-fold: (1) to provide an overview of coverage of biophysical and socio-economic assessments of non-market ecosystem services in relation to forest management; (2) to determine the extent of the integration of biophysical and socio-economic models of these services into decision support models. Our findings reveal the need for wider coverage of non-market ecosystem services and evidence-based modelling of how forest management regimes affect ecosystem services. Furthermore, temporal and spatial modelling of ecosystem impacts remains a challenge. We observed a few examples of multiple non-market services assessments. Integration of non-market services into decision support was performed with either biophysical or socio-economic models, often using proxies and composite indicators. The review reveals that there is scope for more comprehensive and integrated model development, including multiple ecosystem services and appropriate handling of forest management impacts.     

Avoidable damage assessment of forest fires in European countries: an efficient frontier approach

The purpose of this research is to study the avoidable damage from forest fires in the most affected European Union (EU) Member States (MS) using a quantitative model based on a non-parametric efficient frontier technique, namely data envelopment analysis (DEA). The procedure allows the comparison of forest fire damage in EU countries by computing relative efficiency scores and quantifying improvement targets. The proposed DEA model evaluates a slacks-based measure of efficiency and considers two non-discretionary variables (the forest area of the countries and fire weather index). Data from the most affected EU countries over the period 2005–2010 have been used. An input-oriented model has been considered in order to take into account the number of fire events and total burned area as the fire management targets. The study finds evidence that there is a considerable excess of forest area affected by fire in most of the EU countries. The empirical results also suggest that the mean relative damage efficiency in Southern European MS and Other MS is not significantly different. From the efficiency scores, different clusters, with clear characteristic features, emerge. The next step is to extend the best practices of the efficient EU countries.     

关坪亚洲象食物源基地内亚洲象活动特点及与地区水热条件变化关系研究

通过对比2005—2012年间关坪亚洲象食物源基地的亚洲象活动记录和同期气象观测数据,对食物源基地中亚洲象活动规律与当地降雨、温度变化间的关系进行分析。结果显示,进入食物源基地的亚洲象数量与年份增加呈正相关关系(r_s=0.643),食物源基地正吸引越来越多的亚洲象来此觅食;进入基地的亚洲象活动次数随年降雨量的降低而增加,主要是因为亚洲象独立个体活动次数的增加。气候变化对亚洲象活动规律有潜在影响,建议未来在当地开展更加深入的气候和森林物候监测,以更合理地解释当地亚洲象的活动规律和行为改变。     

The formation of small-scale forestry in countries with economies in transition: Observations from Lithuania

Lithuania has been undergoing a transition from one political culture (based on a centrally planned economy and a one-party system) to a radically different political culture (market economy and a democratic political system). After the declaration of independence in Lithuania, some new phenomena emerged in forestry: the privatisation of forest industry, the formation of a free timber market; increasing timber export levels; and new modes of ownership (private forests) and enterprise (private business logging companies). Private forest owners control approximately 680,000 ha of forest, 33% of the total forest area, projected to increase to 40–45% in the future. Small-scale private forestry is developing in Lithuania but there is a lack of information about the objectives and problems of private forest owners. This paper presents the main results of a survey carried out in 2004 by the Lithuanian Forest Research Institute. The most important forest ownership objectives are firewood production for home consumption, income generation from wood and non-wood product sales, and protection of nature and biodiversity. The main problems for private forest owners are that the forest properties are too small to achieve efficiency, owners lack money for silviculture activities and there is a heavy bureaucratic system for forest-related activity documentation. A cluster analysis of respondents’ ratings of importance for various forest management objectives reveals four groups of private forest owners. These groups are named according to their dominant management objective, as multi-objective owners, businessmen, consumers and ecologists.     

Natural disasters and economic development drive forest dynamics and transition in China

China has been implementing the world's most ambitious afforestation and forest conservation programs and undergoing rapid forest expansion since 1990s, thus, understanding the forest dynamics in China has global implications for sustainable forest management. Through analyzing forest area, biomass dynamics, and factors influencing deforestation and forest restoration, we found that the natural disasters and economic development drove forest dynamics and transition in China. The growth of the economy and population drove up demand for forest products, facilitating deforestation. The booming economy also boosted government's investment in forest restoration and conservation programs. Natural disasters damaged and frequently destroyed forests, but they also served as stimuli for the authorities to adopt remedy forestry policies and programs that ultimately led to forest increase. Nationwide, increasing peaks of annual afforestation were observed in the late 1950s, early 1980s, and early 2000s, and the newly increased area closed for forest restoration reached the peak in 1998. All these peaks were closely associated with peaks of natural disasters (i.e., floods, drought, and dust storm events). Based on the dynamics of forest area, biomass and forest consumption over the past 40 years, forest transition occurred during the late 1980s to the early 1990s, and it also strengthened the carbon (C) sink function of forests in China (with an increasing rate of 0.137 Pg C yr.⁻¹ during 1994–2008). Overall, our study highlighted the influences of natural disasters and economic development on the forestry policies and forest C dynamics in the newly industrialized country.     

A transition matrix forest growth model for evaluating alternative harvesting schemes in Indonesia

A transition-matrix forest growth model was developed and is described in this paper. The model was used to evaluate the Indonesian Selective Logging System (also called TPI), using the data obtained from a logging company located at East Kalimantan. Results indicated that the TPI system, under certain conditions, cannot sustain future harvests. Other alternative harvesting schemes were also evaluated by formulating a linear programming model for the harvest scheduling problem.     

Certification of sustainable forest management practices: a global perspective on why countries certify

In this paper, we examine national conditions that encourage the growth of a private regulatory environmental system to govern forests. Economic, institutional and social capital variables for 117 countries are used to examine factors determining forest certification under the Forest Stewardship Council and domestic competitor schemes. Although economic factors, such as forest exports and GDP, are important in explaining the likelihood that a country's forest management practices are certified, the regression results support the idea that economic institutions and the social context under which firms and forest landowners seek certification matters. The ability of citizens to influence the political process is also significant; in particular, the likelihood that firms and forest owners will seek to certify their forest practices is significantly reduced if women have little or no effective voice in civil society.     

Certification of sustainable forest management practices: a global perspective on why countries certify

In this paper, we examine national conditions that encourage the growth of a private regulatory environmental system to govern forests. Economic, institutional and social capital variables for 117 countries are used to examine factors determining forest certification under the Forest Stewardship Council and domestic competitor schemes. Although economic factors, such as forest exports and GDP, are important in explaining the likelihood that a country's forest management practices are certified, the regression results support the idea that economic institutions and the social context under which firms and forest landowners seek certification matters. The ability of citizens to influence the political process is also significant; in particular, the likelihood that firms and forest owners will seek to certify their forest practices is significantly reduced if women have little or no effective voice in civil society.     

Estimation of area burned by forest fires in Mediterranean countries: A remote sensing data mining perspective

Forest fires throughout the world result in tree mortality that can cause substantial timber and carbon losses. There is a critical need to map the areas burned by such fires to guide forest management decisions. Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite imagery provides inexpensive and frequent coverage over large areas, facilitating forest health monitoring. In this study a MODIS post-fire image at a spatial resolution of 250 m serves as the starting point of an image mining based method. It involves three algorithms: modeling as a sum of Gaussian functions, kernel based smoothing, and adaptive thresholding. Adaptive thresholding serves as the reference to be compared to the image mining based method. Three spectral indices specifically designed for burned area identification have been used: the Burned Area Index (BAI), the Burned Area Index adapted to MODIS bands (BAIM), and the Normalized Burn Ratio (NBR). The κ statistic is applied to quantify the accuracy of the burned areas estimations by relating the estimated area with burned area perimeters measured on the ground by Global Positioning System (GPS). In addition, the κ statistic allows us to identify both the optimal spectral index and the optimal algorithms’ parameters. In this work, an accurate estimation (κ > 0.8) of areas burned by forest fires in Mediterranean countries is achieved, in particular if the BAIM index is used. The accuracy of these estimates is compared with the accuracy obtained by using the reference method by a McNemar’s test. Results show that our image mining based method allows a higher accuracy (the average increase of κ equals to 16%) than the reference method. We conclude that this method adequately maps burned areas, and that it may help management agencies to better understand of landscape-scale burn patterns.     

Reforestation policy integration by the multiple sectors toward forest transition in the Republic of Korea

The Republic of Korea (ROK) started to experience forest transition in the 1960s in spite of severe deforestation and forest degradation by the mid 1950s. This ROK case followed the state policy pathway to forest transition. This study interpreted the reforestation policy of the multiple sectors in ROK with the theory of environmental policy integration. ROK has attempted an integrated policy program for reforestation, land management and social development as an innovative approach to solving the problem of flood and erosion due to deforestation while pursuing economic growth. This integrated approach to reforestation of ROK was implemented in three pillars of action: 1) coordinated national plans, 2) collaboration among the governmental branches, and 3) organizational reformation. The integrative approach helped the reforestation policy to be implemented successfully. The case of policy integration for reforestation in ROK is a good example demonstrating that policy integration should be a principle of forest policy design and implementation. The Korean experience could be informative to developing countries experiencing deforestation for design and implementation of forest policy to avoid deforestation and achieve forest transition.     

Valuing forest recreation on the national level in a transition economy: The case of Poland

Recreation benefits constitute a substantial part of the total economic value of forests, and are important for the choice of multi-functional forest policies. The application of methods valuing such benefits is in its infancy in transition economies in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE), so value estimates for policy use are sometimes transferred from Western Europe proportionally scaled down by GDP. However, little is known about how recreation values vary with income, and one risks underestimating benefits in CEE. This paper reports the findings of the first comprehensive, national-level study in any CEE country estimating annual and per trip forest recreation values in Poland using the Travel Cost (TC) and Contingent Valuation (CV) methods. Two in-person interview surveys of forest recreation behaviour were carried out. The first was administered on-site in ten representative forest areas, and the other in the homes of a national sample of adult Poles. Results show that forest recreation is highly valued in Poland, at Euros 0.64–6.93 per trip per person, depending on the valuation method. Both trip frequency and per trip values are higher than the average in Western Europe, despite a lower income level. Thus, a simple GDP-adjusted transfer from Western Europe would substantially undervalue forest recreation in Poland. Further, a comparison of TC consumer surplus estimates and GDP/capita in Europe shows no clear relationship, indicating that a range of cultural, institutional and other factors may be important.