Plant and microbial biodiversity in urban forests and public gardens: Insights for cities’ sustainable development

As the world’s population gets increasingly more urban, the preservation of urban green spaces becomes an important issue in the political agenda worldwide. These spaces may mitigate the negative environmental impacts of urbanisation and improve quality of life. Aiming to increase knowledge in urban biodiversity we compared the diversity of vascular plants and soil microbial communities (fungi and bacteria) in two contrasting typologies of urban green spaces (public gardens and remnant forests) in the city of Coimbra (Portugal). We found 252 taxa of vascular plants of which 58% were native and 42% exotic. Although overall diversity indices were similar in both typologies of green spaces, species richness and percentage cover of native taxa were significantly higher in forests than in gardens. Overall, plant communities in the two typologies of green spaces were distinct. We found high variability among gardens, which is consistent with vegetation in gardens being determined by man rather than by competitive or successional processes. Interestingly, the disparity between gardens and forests was also visible for both bacterial and fungal communities indicating an association between above and below-ground communities. We showed that, due to their origin, remnant forests harbour plant taxa with high conservation and ecological values. It also showed that gardens have higher percentage of exotic species, which led us to conclude that native plant species should be given more emphasis in these spaces. City planners should promote urban development by incorporating an ecological perspective into their management plans to enhance human health and global environmental quality.     

Tree establishment practice in towns and cities – Results from a European survey

A working group within the European Union funded COST Action E12, “Urban Forests and Trees”, carried out a survey between 1999 and 2001 to study current tree establishment practice in European towns and cities. An extensive questionnaire requesting information on the urban area, selection of tree species, establishment and aftercare practices and the main damaging factors was sent to tree professionals in urban areas in each of 17 countries.Indicators such as the relationship between the urban population and the number of street trees were used to compare urban areas. While most central European cities have a ratio of 50–80 street trees per 1000 inhabitants, the tree density was as low as 20 street trees per 1000 inhabitants for Nice. Often only a few species are planted and this may give cause for concern, since species diversity is considered an important factor in increasing the resilience of the urban tree population to abiotic and biotic stresses.The planting of larger street trees of 20–30 cm circumference, usually with hessian-wrapped rootballs, is becoming increasingly common practice. However, some countries report the use of mostly bare-rooted stock of much smaller trees (less than 12 cm circumference). Establishment costs for street trees range from less than 200 Euro to over 1500 Euro each. Poor site conditions, and impacts such as utility trenching are considered to be major restrictions to healthy tree life. Vandalism affects up to 30%of newly planted street trees in some towns and cities.Overall, the survey reveals large differences in tree establishment and management practices among European cities. There is a need to provide urban tree managers with guidance on good practice for tree selection and establishment based on empirical information. The survey was a first step towards collecting the necessary urban forest information from across Europe.     

Synergy of urban green space planning and ecosystem services provision: A longitudinal exploration of China’s development

Ecosystem services (ES) concepts and approaches have become more appealing to practice, such as municipal/urban planning, environmental policies and governance to address sustainable development. Inclusion of this concept in the planning or policy discourses is the first step for further implementation on the ground. Using China’s capital, Beijing, as the case study, this article analyzes how ES (or similar concepts) have permeated China’s urban development history since 1949 when the New China was established and how this has to be with China’s urban green space development. The results show: (1) There were no explicit references to “ecosystem services” per se, but overlapping concepts such as “functions”, “values” and “benefits” can be found in planning documents and, importantly, the lack of the concept per se has not affected the detailed services that emerged in all plans. (2) Among the three ES sections, only cultural services run from the beginning to end although the included services kept changing. Other sections show considerable variation and less continuity – the focal services of each stage changed over time. (3) Through the ES lens, some general patterns regarding China’s urban development can be found such as regulation services gradually become valued for their own sake. The patterns found in Chinese planning documents are then compared with some western regions. This study reveals limitations of the past and opportunities for the future to inform urban development decision-making. Adaptation of old and incorporating new ES concepts can improve the quality of plans and foster cities’ ability to learn from past patterns for future sustainability.     

A review of the outcomes from contracting out urban green space maintenance: What we know,don’t know and should know

Private delivery, i.e. contracting out, of maintenance services in urban parks and green spaces has since the 1980s been spurred by neoliberal reform promises of improved performance. This article contributes to discussions of whether contracting out park and green space maintenance services is a well-performing alternative by evaluating what is known – and not known – about the outcomes in a narrative review of thirteen studies bridging experiences from four decades and three country contexts. It is found that the balance of reported economic and managerial outcomes mostly are on the positive side while the balance of reported outcomes related to service quality and staff are found to be on the negative side. Findings indicate that reforms have partly delivered on their promises. However, the reviewed studies are found to be dominated by evaluations based on governing values inherent in neoliberal management reforms rather than alternative management paradigms, rely on older data from a limited number of country contexts, and lack an accumulated understanding of explanation of outcomes. Finally, the reviewed studies pay little or no attention to the details of the development of different contracting and organizational models within contemporary urban green space management. Future research can expand further on what is known by addressing these key caveats.     

The economic performance of urban gardening in three European cities – examples from Ljubljana,Milan and London

Urban gardening is not a new phenomenon but it has received considerably more practical and academic interest in recent years. Studies on economic aspects such as crop yields, inputs and outputs of production, productivity, gross margins and the contribution to home economics are rare, especially in Europe. While urban gardening plays an important role in the Global South, its role in Western Europe for food productivity and home economics is currently under-researched. The aim of this study is to analyse European urban gardeners’ economic performance and self-sufficiency on a household level, as well as to reach a better understanding of their contribution to food self-provision and food security in the metropolitan areas. In a study carried out in 2014 with on-site personal and with online questionnaires participated 180 urban gardeners from three case study cities (Ljubljana, Milan, and London). Results from the economic analysis showed that although for most urban gardeners, profit is not their main motivation, the economic calculation shows that productivity in small urban plots can be comparable to market garden production. Urban gardeners are saving money, especially when, compared to retail prices for regular produce or organic produce, their input is included in the gross margin calculation. We conclude that, in the case-study cities, the self-provisional potential of urban gardeners’ households to adequately cover the annual vegetable need of five-a-day servings can be met under three conditions: (1) sufficient garden size; (2) increased area productivity, and (3) sufficient labour-hour inputs.     

Does pattern matter? Exploring the pathways and effects of urban green space on promoting life satisfaction through reducing air pollution

Urban green space is widely acknowledged to promote public health through multiple pathways. However, there is limited understanding of how the spatial patterns of green space might play different roles in such a process. This study examined potential pathways through which spatial patterns of green space improved people’s life satisfaction (LS) by reducing air pollution. A partial least squares structural equation model was adopted to explore these pathways in sampled urban areas (township) of China (n = 60). Green space spatial patterns were measured using landscape metrics of size, aggregation, fragmentation, and diversity. The results did not show that green space spatial pattern promoted LS by reducing air pollution. However, green space size and fragmentation were negatively associated with air pollution (mainly PM 2.5, PM 10, and NO 2). The pattern of highly densely distributed small green spaces was related to higher LS, as was high diversity of green space type. Simply adopting a fragmented green space pattern to reduce air pollution might be simultaneously associated with reduced LS. This alerts decision-makers and planners to the potential “double-edged sword” effect of optimizing green space structures to improve air quality, which may not yield strongly favorable results due to the impacts that hinder LS.     

‘Just green enough’ in urban renewal: A multifunctional and pragmatic approach in realizing multiscale urban green space optimization in built-up residential areas

Urban green spaces (UGSs) play an essential role in sustainable urban development and are closely related to public health and human well-being. Previous studies seldom consider the relationships between spatial patterns and equity for the heterogeneity of built-up residential types in the city, not to mention how to place the pragmatic design strategies to explore green injustice for vulnerable neighborhoods. To address this gap, our study adopts a cascade of three methodological stages: 1) applying an urban morphological spatial pattern analysis (MSPA) to compare urban UGS patterns and the UGS-adapted Gini coefficient to measure the spatial equity of UGS distributions in three local built-up areas, 2) employing the minimum cumulative resistance (MCR) model to determine the location of the newly added UGSs and adopting the ‘just green enough’ strategy into the redistribution of UGSs for the marginal neighborhood and at the same time to avoid inequality associated with green gentrification, and 3) exploring an integrated design and implementation method for the newly added UGSs that can accommodate both normal conditions and the possibility of future pandemics. The results indicate that there is a strong correlation between socioeconomic status and the distributional justice of UGSs among built-up types, while disadvantaged people living in the densest residential neighborhoods have lower UGS provisions. This paper demonstrates a multifunctional and pragmatic approach for realizing multiscale UGS optimization by exploring it at the subdivision and neighborhood scales. This implication can also help guide decision-makers and planners to understand the complex interplay between social vulnerabilities, gentrification, and urban greening, thus formulating effective policies and hands-on strategies to address green injustice that are not only crucial for this study region but also of great significance for developing countries in the Global South.     

Understanding the role of urban forests for migrants – uses,perception and integrative potential

Worldwide migration and integration are current issues facing big cities. Immigrants and their descendants represent an important percentage of today's urban populations. Different policies ranging from labour markets to education, housing or health policies address the specific needs of this part of society. However, public policy and planning concepts related to urban forests rarely focus on immigrants. Very few studies investigate the recreation patterns of immigrants despite the potential influence of their different cultural backgrounds on their perceptions or preferences regarding urban woodlands. In addition, urban woodlands could potentially play a role in the social integration of migrants into the society due to being an element of nature with a strong symbolic identification potential and also a public space for social interactions. This paper discusses the results of a qualitative enquiry carried out in Freiburg, Germany, involving migrants from Turkey, the Balkan countries and Russia-Germans. The results point towards many differences in their recreational use patterns and their perception of urban forests, especially between the Turkish interviewees and the other two groups. Furthermore, the results suggest that the emotional attachment to forests can play diverse roles in the identification process of immigrants to their host country. Finally, social interactions were depicted in the interviews as being an important aspect of a forest visit. Nevertheless, social contact between forest visitors seemed to remain mostly on a ‘small-talk’ level.     

Citizens’ use of public urban green spaces at the time of the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy

Since early 2020, Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) has spread rapidly, quickly becoming a global pandemic. To counter the COVID-19 outbreak, national governments have issued different measures and restrictions, forcing citizens to adapt to a whole new lifestyle. These restrictions have impacted on the use of green spaces by citizens owing to many factors: more available free time, increased flexibility in the work environment, and a need to relax in Nature to relieve anxiety and stress. Urban green spaces provide many benefits for the physical and psychological well-being of citizens (e.g., habitat conservation, pollution control, recreational and leisure opportunities). To understand if citizens’ habits have changed due to the COVID-19 restrictions, this study provides insights from a web-based survey monitoring the use of such spaces before and during the COVID-19 lockdowns in Italy. A web-based questionnaire was conducted via “Facebook Messenger” and “WhatsApp” at the end of the second wave of COVID-19 (May–June 2021). Data collection having been concluded, 1075 completed questionnaires were collected and processed. The results show that while many reduced their weekly frequentation of green areas (−16.5%), the number of people frequenting green areas near their home every day increased (+7.7%). Two main groups of people were identified: the first, those who intensified their visits to green areas being those who desired to spend time in contact with Nature; the second, those who were reluctant to visit green areas for fear of being infected. The results also show most of the respondents felt urban green areas were either very important (82.1%) or important (14.4%). Overall, the results reveal that COVID-19 induced a positive perception of the benefits provided by urban green areas, with a consequent greater use of them, which seems destined to last even once the public health emergency has passed.     

Contact with urban forests greatly enhances children’s knowledge of faunal diversity

The replacement of natural environments with urban centers has increased the distance between people and nature, which generates an indifference and apathy towards natural areas. Such a phenomenon is particularly concerning when children are involved because they represent future generations. In the present study, we investigated the effect of ‘contact with a forest’ versus ‘no contact with a forest’ on the knowledge of biodiversity in children under the same socioeconomic and educational conditions. We recruited 267 children for our study; 110 children maintained contact with a forest, while 157 had no contact with an urban forest. We encouraged the children to express their knowledge of the natural environment through drawings. Our results showed that contact with a forest granted children greater knowledge of the native animals, but it did not seem to affect their knowledge of the vegetation. However, the lack of contact with a forest caused the children to give greater importance to human components as part of the forest. Proximity to a natural area, even in an urban environment, seems to help draw attention to its components and sets the groundwork for knowledge construction. Hence, it is highly important to encourage contact between urban children and natural environments, as it enables future generations to have a better connection with nature, which is essential for biodiversity conservation.     

Malaysians’ perception on the contribution of urban green spaces to the UN sustainable development goals

There are only few studies globally that have documented the linkages between urban green spaces (UGS) and sustainable development goals (SDGs). In Malaysia, there is no existing research evaluating the relationship between UGS and SDGs. In this study, we assessed Malaysians’ perception on the association between UGS and seven selected SDGs, building on existing studies that looked at importance of UGS with regards to biodiversity, health, and wellbeing outcomes in Malaysia. Using an online survey of 645 respondents across Malaysia, we tested two hypotheses: H1) perception of SDGs varies by socio-demographic factors and H2) perception of SDGs is moderated by distance to green spaces. A pre-tested structured online questionnaire was administered using a 5-point Likert scale. The data was then analysed using analysis of variance and ordinary least squares. Results show that there is an overall statistically significant difference (p < 0.001) between the sociodemographic variables and the positive perceptions of seven selected SDGs. Several sociodemographic factors (female, younger age, university education, closer to UGS, physical activities in UGS) had positive and significant relationship between UGS and SDGs perception. However, proximity to UGS did not moderate the effect of demographic factors on the attitude towards the SDGs. As Malaysia is becoming a rapidly urbanized country, we suggest developing small green spaces (e. g. pocket parks) in the vicinity of housing areas so that people will have easy access and perform physical activities for their wellbeing. At the same time these green spaces will ultimately contribute to achieving other SDGs in urban areas.     

Visitors’ and residents’ perceptions of urban forests for leisure in Washington D.C

While there is an increasing number of studies on the experience of urban forests, few have examined the similarities and differences between first time visitors, repeat visitors, and local residents in their perceptions of urban forests for leisure. This study fills this research gap using Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), based on data collected on-site from a year-long survey of 1090 participants in Washington D.C. Results indicate that participants are generally positive on urban forests’ value for leisure and are highly satisfied with their leisure experience in the city, with “beliefs in parks and gardens” and “beliefs in street trees” being assessed the highest and lowest, respectively. The study also finds that interaction effects do exist between gender, season, location, and past experience, suggesting respondents’ visiting experience with urban forests is multidimensional, contextual, and situational. Specifically, the older the respondents are, the more positive their responses would be. A location with diverse and dense urban forests is more likely to stimulate positive perceptions, particularly for first timers. In addition, residents tend to focus on recreational aspects of urban forests as opposed to visitors, especially repeaters who are more likely to value the visual and aesthetic aspects of urban forests. This is not only evidenced by the ANCOVA results whereas fall and summer, the best seasons for pursuing outdoor activities, are highly positively perceived by residents, but also by the SEM analyses which show that street trees significantly contribute to repeaters’ satisfaction via their perceptions of “leisure value of urban forests” while no such relationship exists for first timers and residents. Urban parks and gardens are found to significantly and positively contribute to respondents’ visiting experience, which, in turn, leads to satisfaction for each respondent group. Finally, research limitations and theoretical, methodological, and managerial implications are discussed.     

Public perception of spontaneous vegetation on brownfields in urban areas—Results from surveys in Dresden and Leipzig (Germany)

Urban brownfields are found in all parts of the world. They suffer from a negative image, generally being viewed as problem areas. However, urban brownfields also offer potentials for new uses as well as for the ecological regeneration of cities. Especially urban brownfields with spontaneous vegetation can contribute to biodiversity and ecosystem services in dense urban environments. Whether and how this potential is exploited depends on the perception and preferred uses of brownfields by local residents.Through surveys undertaken in Dresden and Leipzig, this paper examines the perception and use of brownfields and their spontaneous vegetation by the urban population. Results show a range of views on brownfields with spontaneous vegetation from negative to positive evaluations. Many residents make use of brownfields, have concrete ideas about how such areas should be utilized or designed and are even prepared to take part in the transformation. The paper suggests that the use and design of green space should be rethought in unconventional ways, and discusses how the ecological and social potential of brownfields with spontaneous vegetation can be best exploited for urban residents.     

The role of Aşiyan Cemetery (İstanbul) as a green urban space from an ecological perspective and its importance in urban plant diversity

İstanbul is one of the fast growing and historical cities in the world, and has many old cemeteries which have belonged to various empires. This study includes the first floristic and plant use results from one of these historical cemeteries (the Aşiyan Cemetery). Vascular plants were collected from the cemetery in order to elaborate plant diversity. A total of 280 plant species was identified from an area of 29.1 decares. 139 of them are spontaneously wild growing taxa in the cemetery and the rest are cultivated on the graves. While the ratio of the area of the cemetery to the area of İstanbul is 0.1%, the cemetery includes 5.5% of the native plants of İstanbul. The steep sloped and stony parts of the cemetery have a native macchia vegetation consisting of Quercus coccifera L., Laurus nobilis L., Pistacia terebinthus L., Phillyrea latifolia L., Jasminum fruticans L., Rhamnus alaternus L., Ephedra foeminea Forssk., Osyris alba L. One of the most important results is the determination of the natural distribution of Rhamnus alaternus, Clematis flammula L. and Ephedra foeminea. This area is a refuge for these three species and the first native record area for R.alaternus in İstanbul. As a conclusion, in spite of covering a small area, the Aşiyan Cemetery has a rich native and horticultural flora, and it is a refuge for three rare species, therefore the cemetery has an important role in urban plant diversity conservation.     

The long-term prospects of citizens managing urban green space: From place making to place-keeping?

This paper discusses the long-term management or ‘place-keeping’ of urban green space by citizens and highlights enabling and constraining factors that play a crucial role in this continuity. While authorities have historically been in charge of managing public green spaces, there is an increased involvement of citizens in green space management. It is therefore relevant to study how citizens can contribute towards place-keeping and realize a continuity in managing and conserving the qualities of urban green spaces.We contribute to these debates by looking at three European cases characterized by long-term involvement of citizens in place-keeping. We conducted document analysis and interviewing of key informants to study green space management over time. Our analysis highlights what factors have contributed towards the continuity of this management, but also shows challenges and difficulties which citizens have experienced. Based on our fieldwork, we identify three factors of particular relevance for the continuity of place-keeping involving citizens.We found that long-term continuity is supported by a degree of formalization: established rules and procedures within groups provide stability to citizens. We also highlight the importance of adaptive capacity: citizens need to be able to adapt to contextual changes in order to cope with external political, socio-economic and cultural developments over time. The supporting role of authorities was also key in legitimizing and supporting place-keeping by citizens. Authorities can support place-keeping by citizens by providing security via stable policies, formally protecting the involved spaces, allowing long-term management contracts and contributing resources.     

How is quality of urban green spaces associated with physical activity and health?

This study investigates the associations between quality of urban green spaces (UGS), self-reported physical activity (PA), and health indicators in Aydın, Turkey. Data was collected through a survey with 420 participants. The associations between quality of UGS, self-reported frequency and duration of PA, and stress, mental health, and physical health were examined with multivariate linear regression while controlling for confounding factors. Results showed that nearest distance to UGS and quality of UGS (i.e. maintenance and cleanliness) were associated with increased frequency of PA. Higher frequency of PA was related to less stress and better mental health and longer duration of PA was associated with better physical health. In addition, large and open/visible UGS were associated with better physical health. The findings also showed that stress mediates the relationship between PA and mental health. Results suggest that providing large, visible as well as clean and well-maintained UGS close to people's homes may be an effective strategy to improve PA and people's health.     

Relationships between students’ demographic characteristics,perceived naturalness and patterns of use associated with campus green space,and self-rated restoration and health

There is increasing awareness of the benefits of campus green space in promoting student's health. However, information on how campus green spaces benefit students’ health is insufficient or limited to guide the planning or management process. As a result, the present study collected 897 valid responses to examine the differences in campus green space usage patterns among students with varying individual characteristics and to assess the interrelationships between students’ socio-demographic characteristics, perceived naturalness, patterns of use, and self-rated restoration and health using a structural equation model. The findings indicated that there were gender disparities in the presence of companions and frequency of use of campus green space, as well as discipline differences in companion presence. Additionally, gender, age, and discipline had distinct associations with perceived naturalness, patterns of use and self-rated restoration and health. Perceived naturalness positively contribute to patterns of use and self-rated restoration and health, while the frequency of use positively contributed to self-rated restoration and health. Moreover, students’ perceived health can be improved in part through the mediating effect of the self-rated restoration. The study findings demonstrated how campus green spaces benefit students’ health and provided valuable information for campus green space managers and designers. Therefore, we propose that presenting diverse natural elements, manipulating them in natural forms, providing feelings of wildness or friendliness, and eatablishing vast, high-quality, and diverse green spaces to promote students’ health.     

A “magic teleportation machine”: Ethnically diverse green space users derive similar cultural ecosystem benefits from urban nature

Green spaces are vital to the wellbeing of urban communities, largely due to the many Cultural Ecosystem Benefits (CEB) that nature contributes to outdoor recreation experiences (e.g., relaxation, inspiration, spiritual enrichment). To ensure equity in the distribution of CEB, however, we require a better understanding of how they relate to ethnicity. Through 100 in-situ semi-structured interviews with green space users in the Lee Valley Regional Park, London, UK, this research explored variation in outdoor recreational CEB based on i) ethnicity and ii) green space activity and attribute preferences. We compared green space preferences and CEB of Black, Asian and minority ethnic (BAME) and white users of two distinct types of urban green space: parks and more biodiverse Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs). Both white and BAME visitors to parks prioritized games/sports and built features whereas visitors to SSSIs more often undertook wildlife viewing and prioritized natural features. However, we found that white and BAME users of both types of urban green space derived similar CEB. Peace and relaxation were primary among these benefits, a result of both nature interaction and its contrast to the urban environment. These results demonstrate that nature does not have to be the focal point of outdoor recreation to contribute to wellbeing; rather, even as a backdrop to sports and cultural activities, nature provides similar benefits to green space users. To promote use of green space and foster intercultural understanding, we recommend integrating these shared benefits obtained from nature within marketing and engagement strategies. Future research is needed to explore CEB variation within and among distinct ethnic communities to fully capture the diversity of lived experiences.     

Assessment and optimization of green space for urban transformation in resources-based city – A case study of Lengshuijiang city,China

Urbanization in China has changed gradually from production-oriented to consumption-oriented in recent years. Comfort and accessibility of green infrastructures effect the rate of urbanization and transformation. A well designed urban green space system is an essential part of the urbanization process. In this paper, the urban green space of Lengshuijiang city was assessed both qualitatively and quantitatively using data of field survey and high resolution remote sensing. In the study area, green space coverage was 37.14%, green space percentage was 33.45% and per capita park green space was 16.25 m². The high green space coverage suggested that there were ample potentials for further urban transformation. Within a 30 min service radius of existing green space, total service area was 204.49 ha, which accounted for 16.26% of the study area. A high proportion of the green space was made up of urban parks which were unevenly distributed across the study area. A green space optimization strategy, aimed at improving green space quality and accessibility, was proposed. After optimization, total service areas within the 30 min service radius will increase to 492 ha (39.12%), an increase of 22.86%. Our study demonstrated that combining qualitative and quantitative methods is an effective and reliable way for green space assessment and reliable and can be used for urban green space planning and management for small resource-based cities like Lengshuijiang in its process of urban transformation.     

Diversity in mind: Towards a differentiated understanding of migrants’ recreational practices in urban forests

This paper presents results of a study investigating the relationship between migration and recreation in urban forests in two German cities. Research in this field is growing in Europe, yet in certain countries, such as Germany, it remains underdeveloped. Until now, it has revealed ambiguities and diverging results. Furthermore, it has been the subject of criticism and calls for more differentiation between and within migrant groups, as well as for more reflection on the categorisation of “migrant” or “ethnic group”. This paper builds on these claims and aims to shed new light on forest recreation and ethnicity through a context-sensitive research approach in the tradition of symbolic interactionism. It draws upon the analysis of 42 qualitative interviews conducted with people with a Turkish, Russian-German and no migration background. The analysis leads to the construction of five narratives, each of them regrouping respondents who share a similar perspective on a specific theme. The narratives show how personal life context and its interlinkages with migration influence the individual's perspectives on and uses of urban forest. They also show how lifestyle and gender shape recreational practices independently from migration background. Beyond the focus on individual experience, collective recreational practices attributed to some groups are expressed in the narratives. This paper addresses the social aspect of leisure and discusses how forest recreation affects the social construction of groups such as migrant groups.