Characterizing the provision and inequality of primary school greenspaces in China’s major cities based on multi-sensor remote sensing

Environmental and green justice problems occur globally, especially in cities with unequal access to urban greenspaces. Recently, inequality in school greenspaces has drawn growing attention, given the importance of campus green environments in young students’ health and academic performance. However, the commonly used Normalized Differences Vegetation Index (NDVI) method for measuring greenspace from satellite imagery is hindered by the saturation issue and tend to underestimate greenspace at high vegetation cover areas, causing large uncertainties in greenspace inequality studies at a national scale. Besides, despite the progress on the inequality of public greenspace exposure, our understandings of primary school greenspace provision and inequality, as well as the driving factors, for young students in a developing world (e.g., China) is still limited. To address these issues, we first adapted a spectral unmixing technique based on multi-sensor remote sensing for more accurate measurements of greenspace provision. Then, we evaluated the provision and inequality of greenspace for 19,681 primary schools in China’s 31 major cities and examined the driving factors using an integrated path analysis. Our findings revealed that: (1) Our proposed multi-sensor remote sensing-based method for greenspace measurement is reliable across our study area with a R² of 0.81 and RMSE of 0.14; in contrast, the traditional NDVI-based greenspace measurement saturated at the range of 0.7–1.0, leading to much lower accuracy (a R² of 0.72 and RMSE of 0.24). (2) Most of the cities under study had low to moderate levels of inequality in primary school greenspace (Gini index < 0.5), but the overall greenspace provision was relatively low; Five cities under study facing high inequality in greenspace exposure (Gini index ≥ 0.5) as well as low greenspace provision (mean fraction cover < 0.25). (3) The monthly maximum temperature and the mean cover of greenspace in primary schools were identified as variables directly affecting the inequality in primary school greenspace (R² = 0.76, p-value < 0.05), whereas the city-level government revenue manifests its effects through the mean cover of greenspace in primary schools and city-level mean greenspace cover. By developing a novel framework for examining the provision and inequality of greenspace in all primary schools in China’s major cities, our study provides valuable insights for designing and evaluating school greening programs in support of healthier learning environment development for next generations.     

Socioecological features of plant diversity in domestic gardens in the city of Bogotá, Colombia

Domestic gardens contribute substantially to green spaces in cities, where urbanization removes and fragments natural landscapes, causing the loss of biodiversity and the homogenization of biota. We analyzed the diversity and composition of the flora of 70 domestic gardens in seven localities in Bogotá, Colombia, which represent different periods of expansion of the city. Floristic composition and diversity were related to the origin and use of plants, the urbanization history, and the income of owners. We recorded 4110 individuals belonging to 238 species. The mean species richness per garden was 15.4, with older localities having significantly higher species richness. The similarity among the localities, which evaluated the distinctness of assemblages, ranged from 0.42 to 0.50. Plants from the Neotropical region and exotic plants were the most abundant in all gardens. The most common use was ornamental, and use depended on the socioeconomic status of the owner. The lower-income homes cultivated larger proportions of edible and medicinal plants. Gardens at the oldest localities, with the largest number of native species, contribute to the conservation of flora because they contain the largest number of native species. Furthermore, domestic gardens are good sources of employment for gardeners and are useful places to keep senior citizens active, helping these citizens relieve stress, maintain good health and teach young people the cultural uses of plants. The receptivity of the homeowners to the study opens the door to future research and conservation programs in the city.     

Relation between visitors’ behaviour and characteristics of green spaces in the city of Granada,south-eastern Spain

This paper examines the relation between visitor behaviour and certain features of a number of major green spaces in the city of Granada, south-eastern Spain, focussing on key urban, ecological and landscape-related issues. Information on user profiles and numbers, the various uses made of these areas, their design, plant species richness and local urban and sociological background, was collected by means of in situ observation in a total of ten urban green spaces with surface areas of over 5000 m². Findings indicated that these spaces were used largely for purposes directly related to well-being: recreational and sporting activities, socialising, or simply relaxing. Interestingly, the most common activities in each space were governed by features intrinsic to the space itself: accessibility, design, maintenance and plant richness and distribution, all of which affected the health-related attributes and aesthetic value of the space. The study also highlighted a number of serious deficiencies in certain green spaces, which will need to be addressed in future action plans and replanning projects as an essential step in ensuring that they meet the real needs and expectations of the target population. The information provided by this research may prove particularly valuable for improving the systemic functions of green spaces in Mediterranean cities sharing similar bioclimatic and sociological features, and for ensuring that they fulfil the role assigned to green spaces in sustainable cities.     

Against the wall—Root growth and competition in four perennial winter hardy plant species grown in living walls

Plants in living walls face challenges from intraspecific and interspecific competition from plants around them, as well as water and nutrient availability in the growing media. This paper explores these challenges using four different species of hardy perennials.Campanula poscharskyana ‘Stella’, Geranium sanguineum ‘Max Frei’, Sesleria heufleriana and Veronica officinalis ‘Allgrün’ were grown in two types of vertical growing media, made of either coir or stone wool, in transparent boxes under greenhouse conditions. In the media, plants were placed above each other, two plants of same species, two plants of different species, or a plant grown alone. Root frequency was registered over 56 days and the activity of individual root systems was studied through uptake of ¹⁵N. In addition, plant dry weight and N content as well as water content in the growing media were measured at cessation of the experiment.Shoot and root growth as well as nutrient content in plants were higher in coir than in stone wool and plants placed at the top position had significantly higher biomass than at the bottom position. The stone wool media had significantly higher water content in the lower part of the media while the coir media had water more evenly distributed. Species differences in root frequency were found. Campanula and Geranium showed strong root growth and had root frequencies of up to 0.9, whereas Sesleria and Veronica had less root growth, in some cases only root frequencies around 0.3. The species reacted differently to root competition and planting position and there were differences in the competitive ability between the species. Campanula and Geranium were not affected by competition, whereas both Veronica and Sesleria showed altered root growth due to competition depending on the growing medium. When Geranium was grown above Veronica in stone wool, plant biomass and ¹⁵N uptake increased in Veronica indicating environmental modification, with one species improving the growing conditions for another.The results revealed that growing plants vertically in a living wall is complex, and that choice of growing medium and species composition is important for a successful living wall. Planting combinations should therefore be tested before being used in commercial applications.     

Secondary school students’ perspectives and use of three school grounds of varying size,content and design

School grounds can have multiple values, and especially sufficient size, green elements, variation, integrated design and participatory development have been described as positive qualities. However, many studies have focused on pre-school and primary school grounds, while less is known about school grounds for adolescents. This study explored how secondary school students experience and use school grounds of varying size, content and design. The study included one class in year 8 (aged 14–15) at each of three schools in southern Sweden. A questionnaire with mainly open questions was distributed, followed by both individual interviews and walking interviews with four students from each class. The results show that school grounds were appreciated, but also that many chose to stay indoors. Large surface area and varied content, with ball courts, greenery, seating and multifunctional equipment, were valued, but a school ground design with integrated and pleasant settings, allowing socialising and activities, particularly support use by secondary school students.     

Implications of forest type and land tenure diversity for the sustainability of ecosystem services provided by northern Amazonia’s multiple-use tree species

Context

As global landscapes continue to change, the sustainability of the ecosystem services they support are increasingly coming into question. In the rapidly changing neotropics, multiple-use plants epitomize sources of ecosystem services. To sustain the relationship that exists between such plants and human populations, a sound understanding of their well-being is required.

Objectives

Density data on multiple-use plants were compared across forest types and land tenure classes to understand the implications of these two spatial frames of reference for landscape sustainability.

Methods

The density of an aggregate sample of seventeen multiple-use and a sub-sample of five species were examined relative to forest type and land tenure class across fourteen Rupununi, Southern Guyana, study sites. The examination of plant density based on the two sample sizes was used to make inferences on how the two frames of reference may impact landscape sustainability.

Results

The mean density of the aggregate sample was highest in three of six forest types, but showed no statistical difference across land tenure classes. When individual species were considered mean densities showed no statistical difference across land tenure classes, but differences were observed for three species across forest types. Mean densities were highest in forest types within which swidden agriculture occurs and in the protected area where logging is prohibited.

Conclusions

Our findings suggested that in changing tropical landscapes plant species distribution can be predicted by forest types, but land tenure classes may provide clearer signals as to where a species well-being and hence ecosystem services may be compromised.

     

Relative influence of local- and landscape-level habitat quality on aquatic plant diversity in shallow open-water wetlands in Alberta’s boreal zone: direct and indirect effects

Reclamation usually involves modification of the local environment to achieve some biotic target, but if the influence of Landscape Condition on that target is great, we may fail to meet it despite efforts at the local-level. We sought to determine the relative influence of local- and landscape-level habitat on aquatic plant diversity in shallow open-water wetlands. Furthermore, we asked whether the influence of Landscape Condition should be attributed to direct (dispersal-related) effects, or to the indirect effect of landscape variables that influence local habitat quality. Finally, we asked if spatial scale (300–2000 m) would affect conclusions about the relative influence of local- and landscape-level effects. Using structural equation modeling, we found that Local Condition is consistently more influential than Landscape Condition. As landscape size increases, the relative importance of Landscape Condition declines and there is a trade-off between its direct and indirect components. At ≤500 m direct landscape effects were of greater importance than indirect effects, whereas indirect effects of Landscape Condition became more important at ≥1500 m. This suggests that the dominant mechanism by which land use influences diversity depends on the spatial extent of the landscape. We recommend that reclamation designs include a high proportion of wetland habitat and incorporate seeding/planting if diverse plant communities are desired. Additionally, we note that the influence of the landscape is strongest within 300 m. Thus, the focus of reclamation efforts should remain at the in-lake level and the immediate surroundings: this is where efforts will achieve the greatest effect on aquatic plant diversity.     

Biological functions of α-synuclein and its role in Parkinson’s disease

α-Synuclein is identified as a constant component of dopaminergic neuronal pale eosinophilic inclusions the Lewy bodies in Parkinson’s disease. In fact, normal α-synuclein has lots of biological functions, which regulates synaptic plasticity, integrates presynaptic signaling, regulates dopamine level in the synapse, modulates microglial activation and lipid metabolism, and exerts heat shock protein-like function. However, abnormal α-synuclein leads to pathological lesion. Many studies show that pathological α-synuclein levels are elevated under the condition of its gene mutation, certain posttranslational modifications, dysfunction of molecular chaperones or ubiquitin proteasome system. The pathological α-synuclein plays an important role in neurodegeneration, in particular, Parkinson’s disease because it interrupts integrity of synaptic vesicles, ER-Golgi traffic and axonal transport, inhibits histone acetylation and chaperone-mediated autophagy, stabilizes itself against proteasomal degradation, and leads to neuroinflammation and abnormal phosphorylation of tau.     

The effects of temperature and plant developmental stage on the occurrence of the curd quality defects “bracting” and “riciness” in cauliflower

Summary

Models to simulate the induction of the “bracting” and “riciness” defects in cauliflower were estimated from field experiments. Bracting, where small cauline leaves develop and penetrate the curd surface, is caused by high temperatures – a kind of de-vernalization. Riciness, on the other hand, where small flower buds develop on the curd surface, is caused by low temperatures, especially after a preceding period of high temperature – a kind of strong vernalization. Both bracting and riciness can be induced only at certain stages during plant development. Plots of cauliflower were given periods of different temperature treatments in the field by portable compartments with both cooling and heating units. The treatments were both constant high or low temperatures (24, 18, 13 and 8°C) in 10 d periods, and alternating high and low temperatures (23/23, 23/15, 23/10 and 23/5°C) in 7 d periods. The treatments were started both before and after curd induction. The incidences of bracting and riciness in harvested curds were recorded in 84 plots with different temperature regimes. These data were used to estimate the combined effect of plant development and temperature on quality defects. The responsive developmental stages in the plants were described by a parabolic function, which depends on the apex/curd diameter. The curd diameter with the highest risk of induction of bracting was estimated to be around 12 mm (range 1–23 mm). A combined model of the diameter function and the summation of daily average temperature with a base temperature of 15°C explained 66% of the variation in the data of observed bracting. The apex diameter with the highest risk of induction of riciness was estimated to be around 0.35 mm (range 0.2–0.5 mm). A combined model of sensitive apex diameter and the preceding temperatures (average daily temperature of 10 d), during a temperature drop (average minimum temperature of 10 d), and after (average daily temperature of 6 d) explained 71% of the variation in the data of observed riciness. These models may be used to set up test equipment and to test susceptibility of new cultivars in breeding programmes. On a farm level, the models may be used to forecast risk of quality defects in cauliflower production. Alternatively, the knowledge of how the combination of developmental stage and temperature scenario induce either bracting or riciness may be used to study flower induction by temperature.     

Inequity in nature’s contributions to people in Ōtautahi/ Christchurch: A low-density post-earthquake city

Nature’s contributions to people (NCP) include the regulating, material, and non-material benefits of urban vegetation that improve well-being. It is increasingly important to plan cities that provide multiple types of NCP equitably to all residents of the city. However, due to historical legacies and planning policies, it is common for the most socially and economically vulnerable urban residents to suffer reduced access to the benefits of urban ecosystems. Previous studies of urban NCP have drawn attention to inequity in one or several types of NCP, but few have analysed a broad range. Here we analysed inequity in nine diverse forms of urban NCP across an index of economic and social vulnerability designed specifically to characterise vulnerability to environmental pressures. Furthermore, we used spatial analysis to map co-variance in vulnerability and a composite indicator of urban NCP, thus highlighting priority regions for future investments in green infrastructure. We applied this approach to the city of Christchurch/ Ōtautahi in Aotearoa/ New Zealand, which provides a valuable case study due to its multicultural population and recent history of widespread damage and regeneration following the 2011 earthquake. Overall, the distribution of urban NCP is inequitable to the disadvantage of more vulnerable residents. Residents of more vulnerable neighbourhoods experienced reduced provision of carbon stock, runoff retention, air quality enhancement, shade, educational green space, public outdoor space accessibility, private green space, and bird biodiversity contributions. Conversely, more vulnerable neighbourhoods had greater provision of erosion mitigation (although negligible in magnitude). The wide range of indicators used and assessed in response to vulnerability, coupled with an assessment of the type of vegetation cover (i.e. grass, tall trees) provides greater insights into how inequities in urban NCP can be addressed in future redevelopment.     

Assessment and optimization of green space for urban transformation in resources-based city – A case study of Lengshuijiang city,China

Urbanization in China has changed gradually from production-oriented to consumption-oriented in recent years. Comfort and accessibility of green infrastructures effect the rate of urbanization and transformation. A well designed urban green space system is an essential part of the urbanization process. In this paper, the urban green space of Lengshuijiang city was assessed both qualitatively and quantitatively using data of field survey and high resolution remote sensing. In the study area, green space coverage was 37.14%, green space percentage was 33.45% and per capita park green space was 16.25 m². The high green space coverage suggested that there were ample potentials for further urban transformation. Within a 30 min service radius of existing green space, total service area was 204.49 ha, which accounted for 16.26% of the study area. A high proportion of the green space was made up of urban parks which were unevenly distributed across the study area. A green space optimization strategy, aimed at improving green space quality and accessibility, was proposed. After optimization, total service areas within the 30 min service radius will increase to 492 ha (39.12%), an increase of 22.86%. Our study demonstrated that combining qualitative and quantitative methods is an effective and reliable way for green space assessment and reliable and can be used for urban green space planning and management for small resource-based cities like Lengshuijiang in its process of urban transformation.     

The effect of boron upon leaf development and growth of the apple cultivar ‘Cox’s Orange Pippin’

One-year-old ‘Cox’s Orange Pippin’ trees planted in pots in sand culture in the spring of 1970 were (during the growing seasons of 1970–72) watered with nutrient solutions containing 0, 0.12, 0.23, 1.2, 3.5 or 7.0 mg boron per litre.

With increasing boron supply, the boron concentration of the leaves increased, the growth of current year’s shoots and to some extent of other plant parts increased, and summer leaf-fall and the occurrence of necrotic leaf spots (‘Cox spots’) decreased. The percentage of healthy leaves was greatest when boron in leaf dry matter was about 30 ppm.

In 1972 the trees with highest boron supply suffered from incipient boron toxicity and increased incidence of ‘Cox disease’ flowering was delayed, and the percentage of dead buds was increased. In the latter part of the summer the leaves curled upwards, turned purple and became brittle.     

Changes of arachidonic acid and TNF-α in primary glomerular disease

AIM: To explore the changes of arachidonic acid (AA) and tumor necrosis factor α(TNF-α) in primary glomerular disease and their effects on oxidative stress. METHODS: Fifty-five patients with primary glomerular disease confirmed by clinical examination and renal biopsy were selected. The patients were divided into 3 groups according to their glomerular filtration rate as chronic kidney disease(CKD)1,2 group, CKD3,4 group, and CKD5 group. The levels of free AA, TNF-α, malondialdehyde(MDA) and high-sensitive C-reactive protein(hs-CRP) in serum were detected by ELISA. RESULTS: No significant difference of AA and MDA between CKD1,2 group and CKD3,4 group was observed (P>0.05). The level of AA was obviously higher, and the level of MDA was significantly lower in CKD5 group than those in the other groups (P<0.05). No difference of TNF-α concentration between CKD3,4 group and CKD5 group was found (P>0.05), but that was significantly lower than that in CKD1,2 group (P<0.05). The content of hs-CRP in each group was not different (P>0.05). The level of MDA was negatively correlated with the level of AA (r=-0.752,P<0.01), whereas positively correlated with the level of TNF-α (r=0.463, P<0.01). The multiple linear regression equation of MDA(Y) for AA(X₁) and TNF-α(X₂) was Y=1 361.723-2.661X₁+9.320X₂ (F=52.445, P<0.01). CONCLUSION: AA and TNF-α are the important factors that influence the level of oxidative stress in primary glomerular disease. AA inhibits and TNF-α promotes oxidative stress.     

A waste of time? On spatial planning and ‘wastelands’ at the city edge of Malmö (Sweden)

City edges have been associated with waste and wastelands for centuries. Refuse dumps have frequently been located at the outskirts of the city, and the metaphor of ‘wasteland’ has been used to depict landscapes at the urban fringe. In this paper, the relationship between actual waste dumps and metaphorical wastelands is brought forward to facilitate an analysis of landscape transformations at the city edge and to reveal the neglect of transient landscapes within spatial planning. In the first part of the paper the interactions between dumps and ‘wastelands’ at the city edge are discussed. In the second part, a case study at the edge of Malmö (in southern Sweden) is presented as an illustration of the transformative city edge and in particular the invisibility of this landscape in local planning. Major landscape transformations during the 20th century are examined along with representations of the area within spatial planning. The primary sources of information have been the archives of the local and regional waste management divisions, local planning documents and field studies. The case study illustrates how the present fringe landscape is constantly camouflaged by a green future; it is always about to be transformed, and therefore ignored. Consequently, an everyday landscape, with hazardous waste as well as places of great potential for recreation, has been disregarded for decades. The paper concludes with a discussion emphasising the importance to unveil such utopian representations, and the need to highlight the present day situation at the city edge.     

Quantifying the spatial relationship between bird species’ distributions and landscape feature boundaries in southern Ontario, Canada

Understanding what features of the landscape affect species distribution is critical to effectively implement conservation strategies. This study investigates how a boundary analysis framework can be used to characterize the spatial association between boundaries (i.e., spatial locations of high rates of change) in bird species?? distributions and landscape features at the regional scale. The study area covers 92,000?km² in southern Ontario (Canada) and extends from the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence biome to the southern Canadian Shield biome. Landcover composition was derived from Ontario Land Cover data (1991?C1998; 7 types) and elevation data were derived from the Canada3D digital elevation model. Bird distributions were estimated using indicator kriging based on point counts obtained from the Ontario Breeding Bird Atlas data (2001?C2005; 60 species). Boundaries were delineated for both data types using a 10?×?10?km cell resolution. Spatial boundary overlap statistics were used to quantify the spatial relationship between landscape features and bird boundaries and tested using a randomization procedure. There was significant positive association and spatial overlap between delineated landscape feature boundaries and bird boundaries. The number of spatially overlapping cells between the two boundary types was 67 out of 164 (41?%) and 76?% of cells were within 11.42?km of each other. These results were statistically significant (P?<?0.001) and suggest a strong spatial relationship between high rates of change in landscape features and bird species?? distributions at the regional scale. A boundary analysis framework could be used to identify boundary shifts in response to climate change and anticipate changes in species distributions.     

An efficient method for immature embryo rescue and plant regeneration from the Calli of Ziziphus jujuba ‘Lengbaiyu’

Hybrid breeding of Chinese jujube (Ziziphus jujube) is limited by embryo abortion. Improving the success of embryogenic progeny and immature embryo culture techniques could increase the breeding efficiency of new jujube varieties. We optimised the current immature embryo culture techniques by using immature embryos before the globular stage of Chinese jujube variety Lengbaiyu. The optimal growth media were as follows: for 30-day-old immature embryo growth, MS + IBA 0.8 mg·L^?1 + ZT 0.5 mg·L^?1 + GA₃ 7.0 mg·L^?1 + NAA 0.2 mg·L^?1 + LH 0.5 mg·L^?1 + 5% sucrose, with 22.22% embryonic growth rate and 0.41% plantlet formation rate; and for young embryo differentiation, MS + TDZ (0.8 mg·L^?1) + IAA (0.5 mg·L^?1) + sucrose (3%), with 81.12% differentiation rate. Thus, regeneration via callus induction effectively improved the efficiency of embryo rescue from young immature embryos in Lengbaiyu, which might provide new approaches for breeding Chinese jujube.     

The role of greenspace deprivation in children’s decision-making

We explored the role of long-term greenspace deprivation in how children evaluate potential rewards and punishments and use this information to make decisions. We used data from the Millennium Cohort Study (MCS), a large population-based longitudinal birth cohort in the UK. Reward and punishment sensitivity was measured at the age 11 data wave with the Cambridge Gambling Task (CGT). Our sample (N = 1701; 51 % male) included children who, as at the age 11 wave, had lived in the same address in urban England since the beginning of MCS and had valid data on the CGT. Our analysis adjusted for families’ selection into neighbourhoods, children’s pubertal status, sex, ethnicity and cognitive ability but also several important aspects of the home’s and the neighbourhood’s physical and social environments. Even after full adjustment, children growing up in the least green neighbourhoods showed less aversion to risk (they scored higher on risk-taking), and the association was similar across sexes. However, long-term absence of local greenspace was not significantly associated with other aspects of reward and punishment sensitivity, including risk adjustment, deliberation time or delay aversion, even after minimal adjustment. Long-term greenspace deprivation seems uniquely predictive of fast decision strategies in children.