Causes of bruising in carcasses of beef cattle during farm,transport, and slaughterhouse handling in Brazil

This study aimed to assess preslaughter factors responsible for the occurrence of bruises to front, rib, loin, hip, and round sites of cattle carcasses. Data from the slaughter of 148 loads of cattle were assessed, totaling 4,611 carcasses. Evaluated bruising factor variables were animal gender, journey distance (km), vehicle type (m²), journey time (hours), load density (kg/m²), handling and facilities conditions (optimal, acceptable, and unacceptable), and unloading waiting time (min). Gender had the strongest influence on carcass bruising, being the first variable to enter in the majority of models related to the carcass sites. Female carcasses displayed higher bruising in all sites. Densities above 401 kg/m² caused more bruising. With the exception of the loin, unacceptable, and acceptable conditions assigned to farm facilities and handling resulted in higher average bruising. Articulated vehicles with a greater load capacity were more likely to cause bruising. The effects of variables causing bruises act differently in the various carcass sites. In this sense, the results of this study suggested possible management practices for specific problems during the preslaughter period to minimize losses by bruising to different carcass sites.     

The incidence of bruising in broiler flocks

1. The amount of down‐grading due to bruising in 55 flocks of broilers was investigated.

4. Bruising was classified as light or bad bruising and it is suggested that this division represents two distinct types of bruises with different causes.

3. The incidence of bruising was greater in female flocks than in male although the bruising in the former tended to be less severe.

4. The relationships between incidence of bruising and several variables associated with the flock and the environment were examined using regression analysis. The factors shown to have a significant influence on the incidence of bruising were: the age and mean weight of the flock, and the temperature and humidity on the day of processing.     

Total loss and distribution of nitrogen and phosphorus in the outdoor run of organic laying hens

1. The objective of this study was to determine the level and variation of the total mass, and load of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) excreted into the outdoor run of organic egg production systems.

2. Three egg production farms with an aviary system and an outdoor run were selected for this study. Four measurements, one per season, were executed on each farm.

3. Mean content of N and P of a manure dropping was 14·0?g N?kg^?1 and 3·12?g P?kg^?1, mean mass of a dropping was 6·36?g and mean dry matter content of a dropping was 238?g?kg^?1. Mean rate of excretion in the outdoor run was 2·99 droppings per hen per h. Mean percentage of hens outside during the time the outdoor run could be accessed was lowest on Farm 1 (1·7%), highest on Farm 2 (16·0%), and intermediate on Farm 3 (7·1%).

4. On all farms an exponential decrease of the number of hens and of the load of N and P with increasing distance from the hen house was found. Load of N exceeded the fertilisation standard (of 170?kg?ha^?1?y^?1) in the region at a 0 to 19?m distance from the hen house on Farm 1, 0 to 146?m on Farm 2 and 0 to 52?m on Farm 3.

5. It is concluded that the husbandry system should be redesigned to solve the problem of overloading, unwanted loss of N and P to the environment and loss of N and P from the organic production cycle.     

Some preslaughter factors affecting the occurrence of bruising in sheep

The preslaughter handling and behaviour, and subsequent bruising was observed in 49 groups of sheep in a commercial slaughterhouse. A greater percentage of bruised carcases was found in lambs (71%) than in ewes (49%) (P less than 0.01). A greater percentage of severely bruised carcases was found in lambs from markets (20%) than in those direct from farms (12%) (P less than 0.05). Significant correlations were found between the occurrence of recent bruising and wool-pulls during unloading, riding by another sheep, and hits and squashes against structures at the slaughterhouse. However, even assuming that each potentially traumatic event observed in the slaughterhouse caused a bruise, only about one-quarter of the bruising could have been attributed to handling problems at the slaughterhouse. Eight-eight per cent of all bruises were estimated to have been caused within about 24 h of death, indicating that most bruising probably was caused by handling problems during loading on the farm, during transit and particularly at markets.     

The ostrich (Struthio camelus) ejaculate--effects of the method of collection, male age, month of the season, and daily frequency

1. Over three breeding seasons on a farm in Poland, semen was collected from 11 ostriches using the dummy and the teaser method to study the effects of the method of collection, male age, month in the breeding season, and daily collection frequency on ejaculate characteristics.

2. A total of 259 ejaculates were collected, with an average volume of 1·28?±?0·6 (±SEM) ml. Sperm concentration was 3·34?±?0·08?×?10⁹/ml, the total number of spermatozoa 4·32?±?0·22?×?10⁹, and motility 4·56?±?0·04.

3. There was no difference in ejaculates collected by the dummy and teaser methods, but the between-individual variation was considerable. Ejaculate characteristics increased with male age and varied between months, with little evidence for seasonal decline. Daily collections for 10 days did not affect sperm output.

4. The results open up avenues for further research on development of a viable protocol for artificial insemination in ostriches and efficient semen storage.

5. The between-male variation suggests that the ejaculate output could be maximized through selection.     

Relationship between abdominal fat content and avian uncoupling protein gene expression in skeletal muscle of Japanese quail Coturnix japonica

1. The genetic architecture of the avian uncoupling protein (avUCP) was investigated and the relationship between avUCP gene expression and the amount of abdominal fat of Japanese quail was determined by quantitative real-time PCR.

2. The Japanese quail avUCP gene consists of six exons and five introns. Sequences of nucleotides and amino acids were 94·6% and 86·0% identical to those of the chicken avUCP gene, and phylogenetic analysis showed that the Japanese quail avUCP gene consists of the same clusters as the chicken and turkey avUCP.

3. Expression of the avUCP gene was significantly higher in the Pectoralis major (1·28?±?0·24) than in the Biceps femoris (0·63?±?0·14).

4. A positive correlation coefficient between the avUCP gene expression in the Pectoralis major and Biceps femoris was observed (r?=?0·79, P?=?0·02), whereas a negative correlation coefficient was observed between the abdominal fat percentage (AFP) and gene expression in both the Pectoralis major (r?=??0·82, P?=?0·01) and Biceps femoris (r?=??0·61, P?=?0·11).

5. The avUCP gene was associated with the accumulation of abdominal fat in Japanese quail and it was concluded that modulation of avUCP gene expression could be utilised to control abdominal fat accumulation in poultry.     

Relationship between egg‐shell colour and two measurements of shell strength in the Vasca breed

1. Egg‐shell colour, egg specific gravity, shell thickness and egg weight were determined for 2080 eggs from three varieties of the Vasca, a Spanish brown‐egg‐laying hen.

2. Intermediate, positive and significant (P < 0·01) correlation coefficients were found between egg‐shell colour and specific gravity (0·25), or shell thickness (0·21). There was a very high (0·84), significant (P < 0·01) correlation between the measures of shell strength.

3. Shell thickness was accurately predicted with both specific gravity and egg weight as independent variables (determination coefficient 0·74); eggshell colour did not explain any further variation.

4. All traits showed considerable departure from normality in the form of negative kurtosis (shell colour and specific gravity), positive kurtosis (shell thickness and egg weight), negative skewness (shell thickness) or positive skewness (egg weight).

5. Egg‐shell colour, specific gravity and shell thickness were less in July, in old birds and in eggs laid in the morning. Differences in egg quality traits between the three varieties were not significant.

     

Characteristics of ciprofloxacin and cephalosporin resistant Escherichia coli isolated from turkeys in Great Britain

1. A field study was performed to investigate the presence and characteristics of ciprofloxacin-resistant, extended spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) and AmpC Escherichia coli from turkeys in Great Britain. E. coli were isolated from ～9000 boot swab samples from 27 different farms owned by four different companies. Between 1 and 14 visits were made to each farm (mean 3) at between 0 and 15?m intervals (mean?～?5?m).

2. CHROMagar ECC with and without ciprofloxacin or cephalosporin antibiotics was used as selective isolation media. Representative isolates with different phenotypes were tested for mutations in gyrA and for: qnrA, B, S, qepA and aac(6′)-Ib genes, for ESBL phenotype, the presence of bla _CTX-M genes and plasmid type, and for ampC genes_. Representative ciprofloxacin-resistant and CTX-M isolates were further tested for serotype and PFGE type. On ciprofloxacin selective media 55% of samples yielded ciprofloxacin resistant E. coli and of those further analysed, most had ciprofloxacin MICs >4 mg/l and mutations in gyrA.

3. For the different companies, the mean number of samples per farm with cefoxitin- or cefotaxime-resistant isolates ranged from 1·0% to 61·9% and 4·7% to 31·7% respectively. Cefotaxime-resistance was most commonly associated with an ESBL phenotype, a CTX-M-1 or CTX-M-14 sequence type and an I1-γ or K plasmid inc type. The mechanism of cefoxitin resistance was not determined for most isolates, but where determined it was bla _CMY-2.

4. PFGE and serotyping showed clonally-related isolates persisting over multiple visits suggesting both more prudent use of antibiotics and improved farm hygiene are needed to address the issue of antimicrobial resistance in isolates from turkeys.     

Reproductive Effort and Seed Establishment in Grazed Tussock Grass Populations of Patagonia

The importance of sexual reproduction in tussock grasses that regenerate through vegetative growth is unclear. Festuca gracillima Hook. f. was studied as a model because it is a perennial tussock-forming grass that produces abundant seed but rarely regenerates through seedlings. The Study area was the Magellanic Steppe, Patagonia, Argentina (182 mm rainfall), managed with sheep-grazing regimes of 0.65 (high), 0.21 (low), and 0 (exclosure) ewe equivalents · ha^?1 · yr^?1. Tussock size and spikelet production of 358 individuals were recorded over 5 yr. Yearly models of reproductive effort in relation to plant size were tested using a maximum likelihood procedure. Seed was collected and soil cores were tested for germination and viability. Survival and growth of cohorts of seedlings sown in nylon bags were recorded. Eighteen experimental plots were cleared, and seed establishment under protected and grazed conditions was registered. Reproductive effort varied with years and plant size, with a mean of 2.41%. Florets were produced at mean density of 544 ± 217 · m^?2. Predispersal losses reduced viable seed production to 187 ± 48 seeds · m^?2. Seed weighed 2–2.5 mg, with 65–95% germination. Postdispersal losses reduced the seed bank in spring to 33 ± 1.3 seeds · m^?2. Seedling survival curves were negatively exponential, with 95% mortality in the first year. Up to 5% of resources were used for sexual reproduction in favorable years and a recruitment of 1–3 new seedlings · m^?2 · yr^?1 was expected. These new plants were not observed in undisturbed plots, but established naturally in cleared plots and reached a density of 1 plant · m^?2 after 10 yr, together with 44 plants · m^?2 of other species. Competition might block the final establishment in these grasslands. Grazing does not appear to interfere in any stage of seed reproduction. Seed production may not maintain population numbers but could enhance genetic variation in these clonal plant populations and enable dispersal and recolonization of disturbed areas.     

Energy and nitrogen metabolism of broilers selected over ten generations for increased growth rate,food consumption and conversion of food to gain

1. Energy and nitrogen (N) metabolism were studied in 6‐week‐old male birds taken from 4 lines of chickens selected for 10 generations for increased weight gain (line W), increased food consumption (line F), increased conversion of food to gain (line E) or at random (controls, line C).

2. Calorimetric measurements were made 8 times on each line while fed ad libitum in large open‐circuit respiration chambers for 3 d, and 11 to 13 times without food in smaller closed‐circuit respiration chambers for 24 h.

3. The F line ate 60% more food, produced 90% more excreta and 34% more heat and retained 80% more energy and 35% more N in their bodies than lines E and C. Line W was intermediate.

4. When differences in body weight were taken into account, the E and W lines had lower heat production than the C line, while the F line ate 40% more food, produced 30% more heat and retained 70% more energy and 30% more N than the E line.

5. In lines W, F, E and C respectively, the mean metabolisability of dietary energy (%) was 69·4, 62·9, 70·1 and 67·8 ; the fasting heat production (mean ± SE) was 481 ±9, 569 ± 10, 485 ± 9, and 508 ± 9 kJ/kgW d; the net availability of metabolisable energy (NAME) was 0·68 ± 0·05, 0·76 ± 0·04, 0·85 ± 0·06 and 0·73 ± 0·04; the estimated daily maintenance energy requirements were 671 + 15, 866 ± 14, 701 ± 13, and 742 ± 11 kJ ME/ kgW; and the proportion of N retained per unit increase in N intake was 0·38 ± 0·08, 0·50 ± 0·06, 0·56 ± 0·10 and 0·53 ± 0·06. 6. The contribution of line differences in the above traits to large line differences in efficiency of food utilisation is discussed.

     

Isolation, identification and antimicrobial susceptibility of Bacteroides fragilis group strains recovered from broiler faeces

1. The objective was to evaluate the occurrence of cultivable components of the Bacteroides fragilis group in faeces of broiler chickens and their antimicrobial susceptibility patterns.

2. Faecal samples of 36?×?45-d-old Cobb broilers of both sexes from 15 different flocks on one farm were diluted 10-fold and plated on to Bacteroides-bile-esculin agar for colony count and isolation. Identification was by molecular methods and antimicrobial susceptibility in the agar dilution assay.

3. A total of 236 isolates was recovered from a mean population of 3·32?×?10⁷ colony-forming units/g of faeces. B. fragilis was shown to be the predominant Bacteroides species (45·3%), followed by B. distasonis (35·6%), B. vulgatus (8·9%), B. ovatus (2·5%) and B. stercoris (1·3%).

4. Among 204 bacterial isolates tested, high resistance to ampicillin (98·5%), norfloxacin (95·1%) and tetracycline (88·2%) were observed. High (89·7%) multi-drug resistance was observed to 3–7 of the tested drugs.

5. Components of the B. fragilis group were sub-dominant in broiler faecal microbiota, with a different species pattern compared with human and high antimicrobial multi-drug resistance.     

Body weight and/or fatness as potential determinants of the onset of egg production in broiler breeder hens

1. In four trials during consecutive years individually‐caged birds were weighed at first egg, and in the first two trials they were then killed to determine abdominal and skin fat, in order to establish whether there is a minimal body weight and/or body fat pool required for the start of egg production in broiler breeder hens.

2. There were negative correlations ranging from significant to negligible between body weight and age at first egg. For birds of the same strain on a conventional food restriction regimen, the average weight range at first egg in the four trials was 3·3 to 3·7 kg, which may be a strain characteristic.

3. In spite of severe food restriction, all birds were very fat at first egg. The correlations between fat concentration and age at first egg were negative.

4. In mature pullets a minimum concentration of stored, easily mobilised fat may be essential for yolk formation and ovulation.

     

TIME OF OCCURRENCE OF BRUISES IN SLAUGHTERED CATTLE

SUMMARY One hundred and seventy four bruises, taken from 271 cattle of mixed age and type, were aged histologically. At least 43% of all bruises occurred after the animals had arrived at the abattoirs. Bruise age was not related to bruise size or location. The results indicate a need to include examination of abattoir handling techniques in any programme to reduce carcase bruising.     

Comparison of plasma very low density lipoproteins and lipogenic enzymes as predictors of fat content and food conversion efficiency in selected lines of broiler chickens

1. Activities of lipogenic enzymes and plasma very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) concentrations were measured in lines of chickens with large differences in food conversion efficiency (FCE) and body fat.

2. Hepatic activities of malate dehydrogenase [EC 1.1.1.40 (MD)] and ATP citrate lyase [EC 4.1.3.8 (CL)] were correlated with the proportion of both abdominal and total body fat (r = 0·50) but were poorly correlated with gain:food ratio.

3. Activities of MD and CL in plasma were low and variable and were not correlated with any other characteristics.

4. Plasma VLDL concentration was significantly correlated with the proportion of abdominal and total body fat (r = 0·59), and gain: food ratio (r = 0·36).

     

Prevalence of skin lesions in turkeys at slaughter

1. The aims of this study were (i) to evaluate the prevalence of welfare-related cutaneous lesions in turkeys at the end of the rearing period and (ii) to study the correlations between lesions.

2. The percentage of lesions in each flock was determined by observation at the slaughterhouse. Sixty flocks were investigated in 13 slaughterhouses between April and July 2006.

3. All flocks showed a high proportion of turkeys with footpad lesions, with 40·7% of turkey flocks having severe footpad dermatitis. A significant number of feet had swelling of the footpad and deviated toes (60·0% and 21·4% respectively). Arthritis was observed in 25·4% of the carcases and an average of 30·1% had breast buttons on the keel.

4. Positive correlations were found between evidence of feather pecking and arthritis, toe deviations and swelling of the footpad. Deviated toes, swelling of the feet and feather pecking were negatively linked to the most severe scratches (P? 5. A method is proposed to assess turkey welfare at the slaughterhouse based on several criteria: footpad lesions, arthritis, severe scratches, deviated toes, swelling of the footpad and breast buttons.     

Morphological observations on frozen and thawed Muscovy spermatozoa

1. Fresh Muscovy drake spermatozoa were examined using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). The average lengths of the segments were: acrosome 1·8 μm, nucleus 10‐9 μm, midpiece 3·6 μm and flagellum (exclusive of midpiece) 71 μm.

2. Under the light microscope, the incidence of abnormal spermatozoa in Muscovy semen subjected to freezing and thawing (almost all with crooked necks) was about 5% higher than that in diluted unfrozen semen.

3. In thawed semen, various abnormalities of the acrosome were observed under the SEM. It seemed that the most radical change was the complete separation of the acrosome from the apical part of the nucleus.

4. The incidence of abnormal acrosomes was increased more than 20% by freezing and thawing.

5. These results suggest that low fertility in thawed semen may be related to increases in the proportion of spermatozoa with crooked necks and acrosomal damage.

     

Implications of genetic selection on yolk proportion on the dry matter content of eggs in a White Leghorn population

1. The responses to genetic selection on yolk proportion as a technique for increasing egg dry matter content, an important criterion for the egg-product industry, was investigated in a pedigree flock of White Leghorn hens.

2. Parents were preselected on high and low yolk proportion from a base population. The absolute estimated breeding value for yolk proportion of both groups differed by 3%. The realised selection difference in dry matter content of eggs between groups was more than 1% in the analysed offspring population.

3. Heritability estimates were moderate and dry matter had a lower heritability (h² = 0.39) than yolk proportion (h² = 0.44).

4. The genetic correlation between yolk proportion and dry matter content was highly positive (r_g = 0.91). Genetic correlations with egg weight were negative and would have to be compensated for in a breeding programme (r_g = ?0.76 with yolk proportion and r_g = ?0.64 with dry matter content). The genetic correlation between the laying performance and yolk proportion was r_g = 0.28 and close to zero (r_g = ?0.05) for dry matter content.

5. Easy recording and lower undesirable correlations make yolk proportion more suitable for commercial selection compared with egg dry matter content in layer breeding.     

Incidence of foot and skin lesions in nursing piglets and their association with behavioural activities.

A total of 356 piglets from one farm were examined for foot and skin lesions every day for the first 10 days after birth, and then on alternate days until they were weaned. Over a period of 24 days 100 per cent of the piglets examined developed sole bruising, and 49.1 per cent developed sole erosions. Sole bruising lasted for an average of 13 days and sole erosions for seven days. At the beginning of the study, a higher proportion of piglets had mild sole bruising; from three to nine days of age piglets had moderate sole bruising but from days 10 to 20 mild bruising was again observed more frequently. Skin lesions were observed on the carpal aspect of the front limbs; 60.9 per cent of the piglets developed skin abrasions, 70.7 per cent developed healed wounds and 90 per cent developed hairless patches. The skin abrasions lasted on average for six days, the healed wounds for five days and the hairless patches for eight days. Piglets which developed sole bruising and/or sole erosions on the first day of life were significantly heavier than those which did not. Continuous observations of the piglets' behaviour during the first six days of life showed that sole bruising increased as the total time spent in the creep area or lying near the sow on the solid floor increased. During the first three days of life skin abrasions increased as the total time spent lying in the creep area increased. There was a positive correlation between the total time piglets spent suckling and the incidence of carpal skin abrasions between four and six days of age. Piglets with sole bruising, sole erosions or carpal skin abrasions spent less time during the day in 'other' activities such as walking, playing or fighting.     

A Basis for Relative Growth Rate Differences Between Native and Invasive Forb Seedlings

The ability of invasive plants to achieve higher relative growth rates (RGR) than their native counterparts has been widely documented. However, the mechanisms allowing invasives to achieve higher RGR are poorly understood. The objective of this study was to determine the basis for RGR differences between native and invasive forbs that have widely invaded nutrient-poor soils of the Intermountain West. Six native and 6 invasive forbs were seeded in pots in a greenhouse, and 4 harvests were conducted over a 2-month period. These 4 harvests were used to calculate RGR and the components of RGR, net assimilation rate (rate of dry matter production per unit leaf area), leaf area ratio (LAR, leaf area per unit total plant mass), leaf mass ratio (the proportion of biomass allocated to leaves), and specific leaf area (SLA, leaf area per unit leaf biomass). Mean RGR of the 12 study species ranged between 0.04 and 0.15 g · g⁻¹ · d⁻¹ but was significantly higher for invasive forbs compared to native forbs (P = 0.036). The higher RGR achieved by invasive forbs was due mainly to a greater SLA and LAR. This indicates that invasive forbs achieved higher RGR than natives primarily by creating more leaf area per unit leaf mass, not by allocating more biomass to leaf tissue or by having a higher net rate of dry matter production. A high degree of variation in RGR, SLA, and LAR was observed in native forbs, suggesting that the ability to design weed-resistant plant communities may be improved by managing for specific functional traits as opposed to functional groups.