Root size estimates of red clover and alfalfa based on electrical capacitance and root diameter measurements

Electrical capacitance and root diameter techniques for estimating root dry weight were evaluated in one test with red clover plants grown on slant-boards in plant growth chambers for 37–77 d, and in six tests with alfalfa grown in the field for 55–165 d. Root dry weights of red clover were estimated satisfactorily with regression equations from both diameter ( R ²=90%) and capacitance ( R ²=76%) measurements. Root dry weights of alfalfa were estimated satisfactorily throughout the entire season from diameter values ( R ² from 51 to 92%). Alfalfa root weight was significantly ( P <0·25) related to capacitance values at the beginning and at the end of the season but not at mid-season. Electrical capacitance measurements were similar for intact root systems and roots severed 4 cm below the crown in separate experiments with red clover and with alfalfa. The root diameter technique provided an accurate, rapid and inexpensive method of estimating root size throughout the first season of growth. The root capacitance method provided satisfactory estimates of roots at certain times during the summer. Neither method would be useful if a large portion of the root was naturally severed.     

Characterization of the effect of high salinity on roots of Chloris gayana Kunth: carbohydrate and lipid accumulation and growth

Branched nodal roots comprise the largest portion of the root system mass in Chloris gayana Kunth and the effects of high salinity on nodal root appearance and elongation rates were analysed in cv. Boma in greenhouse experiments. Roots from salt-treated plants (0·2 mol l^–1 NaCl) were smaller than controls, and accumulated higher concentrations of soluble sugars and reserve lipids. The number of nodal roots was reduced by the saline treatment. Leaf, tiller and nodal root appearance were delayed by salinity but the correlation among these processes was maintained, indicating that the developmental pattern was not altered by this level of salinity, only its rate. Initial nodal root growth rates varied as a function of plant size and were decreased by salinity only after 2 weeks of treatment. When shoots of non-salinized plants were cut, a drastic reduction in nodal root appearance was observed, suggesting emerging leaves were stronger sinks than roots for available reserves. However, when the shoots of salt-treated plants were cut, the already depressed root appearance rate was not further reduced. This suggests that, under salinity, alterations in root ability to metabolize reserves could have been more significant than reserve availability for controlling elongation.     

Influence of different forage grasses on nitrate capture and leaching loss from a pumice soil

Nitrogen (N) uptake and loss in leachate from a pulse of ¹⁵N-labelled synthetic cow urine applied to a pumice soil were compared in a glasshouse lysimeter experiment among the grass species, Agrostis capillaris , Dactylis glomerata , Phalaris aquatica , Lolium multiflorum , L . perenne and a L . multiflorum/A. capillaris mixture. In addition, four L. perenne treatments investigated the effect of infection by Neotyphodium lolii strains. Leachate volumes and leachate nitrate concentrations were measured. At final harvest 24 weeks after sowing, dry matter (DM) mass of shoots and roots, plant N and ¹⁵N contents, soil residual mineral N, and root diameters and lengths were measured. Endophyte had no effect on plant or nitrate variables. Lysimeters planted with L . perenne (pooled endophyte treatments) leached 48 mg of NO₃-N compared with <3 mg N for the other grasses. Recovery of ¹⁵N was highest in A. capillaris (0·99), followed by D. glomerata and P. aquatica (0·89), the L . multiflorum / A. capillaris mixture (0·87), L . multiflorum (0·60) and L . perenne (0·44). Low ¹⁵N recoveries and high leaching losses from L . perenne were associated with low plant and root masses of DM and low rooting depth. High aerial mass of DM, root systems extending below 20 cm and high root masses of DM in lysimeters with A. capillaris , P. aquatica and D. glomerata contributed to a high rate of nitrate interception by these species and low leachate losses. The L . multifloru m/ A. capillaris mixture was intermediate between the two species for most of the variables measured.     

Effect of three clover varieties on growth, 15N uptake and fixation by ryegrass/white clover mixtures at three sites in Wales

Grass and clover production and nitrogen cycling were compared in 1983 and 1984 at three sites: an upland peaty gley and upland and lowland brown earths. The clover varieties Olwen and S184 were compared in 1983 and S100 and S184 in 1984. Ammonium and nitrate sources of ¹⁵N were used to measure nitrogen recovery from fertilizer and soil, nitrogen fixation and nitrogen transfer from clover to grass. Acetylene reduction was measured once, in 1983, but isotope dilution was used in both years.
Olwen clover produced more dry matter and took up more ¹⁵N than S184. Olwen fixed more nitrogen than S184 over the whole season, as measured by ¹⁵N isotope dilution. Companion grass took up more soil nitrogen when growing with S184 than with Olwen. The clover variety S100, tested at the lowland site in 1984, caused no significant variations in dry matter accumulation or N fixation.
In the dry 1984 season, grass dry matter accumulation and ¹⁵N uptake were less than in 1983, and plants actually lost total nitrogen from their roots to the soil. Fixation rate varied more in 1984 than in 1983. Nitrogen transfer from clover to grass was detected by isotope ratio differences in 1983, and by total N differences in 1984.
Site differences were dominated by the greater dry matter accumulation of Olwen in the lowland in 1983, but in that year there was also increased dry matter accumulation and increased ¹⁵N fertilizer uptake, but less nitrogen fixed on the mineral upland site than on the peat soil.
Whether ¹⁵N was given as ammonium or nitrate made little difference in these experiments.     

Effect of plant density and removal of ears on the quality and quantity of forage maize in a temperate climate

The present study was aimed at testing the hypothesis that a dense maize stand (320–720·20³ plants ha^-1) will produce more dry matter of acceptable quality than a stand sown at the density generally advocated (10⁵ plants ha^-1). It was also aimed at proving that grain is not essential in order to obtain a high yield of good-quality forage maize.
It was found that dry matter yield increased with density, especially at the early stages of growth. When ear-formation was depressed by increasing plant density, the resulting reduction of ear yield and its quality due to the absence of ear was partly compensated for by the increased yield and quality of the stem.     

FURTHER STUDIES ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SHOOT AND ROOT SYSTEMS OF GRASSES

In young grass plants it is possible to relate the weight of the root to that of the shoot through the allometric formula y = bx ^k . Using this formula it was found that flower formation was associated with an increase in shoot growth relative to that of the root. Within varieties of Lolium , the greater the intensity of heading the more was the growth of the shoot relative to that of the root. Perenniality was associated with a high rate of root growth relative to that of the shoot. A decrease in the light intensity or soil water reduced the growth of the plant as a whole, but light decreased root growth more than that of the shoot while water supply had the opposite effect.     

The deposition of Caesium 137 on grassland at a site in SW England following the Chernobyl accident

Following the Chernobyl accident in April 1986 ¹³⁷Cs was detected in samples of grass collected at AGRI, North Wyke, Devon, UK. Samples of grass from permanent and reseeded swards under uniform management were taken on three occasions. The ¹³⁷Cs content of the samples was assessed as both Bq kg^-1 of sample and Bq m^-2, Samples taken from the same site in 1985 were used as a control group; these contained no measurable ¹³⁷Cs. The samples taken on 8 May 1986 had a ¹³⁷Cs content of approximately 30 Bq kg^-1; by 31 July 1986 the content had dropped to 1% of this value. The permanent pasture initially showed a higher level of ¹³⁷Cs than the reseeded sward. Analysis of soil cores from the sampling area showed a much higher level of ¹³⁷Cs than that found in the herbage. This was attributed to the atmospheric testing of nuclear devices in the early 1960s: the short-lived ¹³⁷Cs isotope was found in the 1986 herbage samples but not in the soil cores.     

Interactions between N supply and N uptake by perennial ryegrass, 15N recovery and soil pH for four acid Scottish soils

The effects of NH₄⁺−N, NO₃⁻-N or urea-N addition on N uptake by perennial ryegrass ( Lolium perenne ), ¹⁵N recovery and pH of four limed and unlimed soils were determined in a pot experiment over 10 weeks. The best form of N in terms of herbage N uptake and fertilizer recovery differed between the soils. Recovery of applied ¹⁵N in herbage was greatest for the soil with the lowest pH and highest organic matter content, and overall recovery in the soil–plant system was influenced more by soil type than by N form. There was always an apparent mineralization of soil N when perennial ryegrass was present. Soil pH changes ranged from +0·11 to −0·58 units for the unlimed soils and from +0·03 to −1·06 units for the limed soils. The use of NO₃⁻-N rather than NH₄⁺-N or urea-N avoided further acidification. Lime increased herbage N only from the soils with the lowest pH values. Although the acidifying effect of NH₄⁺-fertilizer was alleviated, liming may increase nitrification and possibly N loss via denitrification and/or leaching in the field.
The major influence of soil type on herbage N uptake, pH response to the treatments and fertilizer recoveries implies that liming and fertilizer N management decisions should consider soil characteristics, such as organic matter, clay contents and pH.     

Ensiling of manured crops—effects on fermentation

The quality of silage from crops fertilized with cattle manure and an inorganic fertilizer was compared in experiments from 1985 to 1989. Manure was spread either as farmyard manure (FYM, 25t ha⁻¹) or as slurry (20-50t ha⁻¹). Crops were direct cut (approximately 200 g DM kg⁻¹) or wilted (approximately 300 g DM kg⁻¹), precision chopped and ensiled in experimental silos. Silage was treated with 4 kg 85% fonnic acid t⁻¹ fresh matter (FM), an inoculant or no additives. The use of manure, particularly FYM, resulted in more Bacillus spores on crops at harvest compared with fertilized crops. Clostridium spores increased as a result of manuring in 1989 only on FYM-treated crops. Differences in the chemical composition of crops were usually small between fertilizer treatments. The quality of silage from slurry-dressed crops, compared with that of silage from fertilized crops, varied between years. The FYM resulted in reduced silage quality, i.e. high pH values (> 4·5), high ammonia N (> 150 g kg⁻¹ total N) and butyric acid (> 6·3 g kg⁻¹ water) concentrations, and high numbers of Bacillus (10⁵ g⁻¹ FM) and Clostridium spores (10⁵ g⁻¹ FM). The concentration of lactic acid was low (≤ 12 g kg⁻¹ water). Wilting and additives generally improved silage quality and reduced the differences between treatments. However, the efficiency of the inoculant on farmyard manured crops was limited.     

小麦生育后期主茎和分蘖次生根对籽粒产量和品质的影响

为通过根系调控提高小麦产量和改善品质,以弱春性优质强筋小麦品种郑麦9023为材料,研究了生育后期主茎次生根和分蘖次生根对小麦籽粒产量和品质的影响。结果表明,小麦分蘖次生根根系活力与根中全氮含量显著高于主茎次生根,而根中可溶性糖含量则低于主茎次生根。随着生育进程的推进,分蘖次生根与主茎次生根间的差异逐渐减小。分蘖次生根对单株成穗数、千粒重及单株产量的贡献大于主茎次生根,而对穗粒数的贡献则显著小于主茎次生根。与对照（维持完整根系）相比,只留主茎次生根处理和只留分蘖次生根处理的籽粒直链淀粉含量与直/支比例显著提高,而蛋白质含量显著下降。因此,生产实践中可以通过调节分蘖次生根与主茎次生根的比例及生理特性来提高籽粒产量和改善品质。     

Quality of grass silage infected with spores of Clostridium tyrobutyricum

The influence of adding clostridial spores to silage was studied in 2 successive years. Direct-cut, precision-chopped herbages were infected with spores of Clostridium tyrobutyricum in doses varying from 0 to 10⁶ g^−l fresh material (FM), and ensiled in experimental silos. The material was treated with or without 4 ml formic acid (85%) kg⁻¹ FM. Silo contents were studied after 4.20 (or 50) and 100 days of ensiling.
Contents of dry matter, water-soluble carbohydrate, nitrate as well as buffering capacity of FM varied between the 2 years at harvest, whereas the numbers of clostridial spores were about the same (< 10² g⁻¹).
Infecting the crop with clostridial spores negatively affected the quality of silage in the first year. After 50 days spore numbers in the silages had increased by 40 × 10³ to 150 × 10³ times in the infected silage, compared with 5 × 10³ in the uninfected silage. No effect was seen in the second year.
Silage with high spore counts showed no residual nitrate content. Formic acid improved silage quality from a chemical point of view but had no anti-clostridial effect. Ensilability of a crop seems to be more important than the initial count of Clostridia for a successful ensiling process.     

磷素对甘薯生长前期源库关系建立和平衡的影响

通过2年盆栽试验研究不施磷P₀（P₂O₅ 0 g/kg）、适量施磷P_0.04（P₂O₅ 0.04 g/kg）和过量施磷P_0.08（P₂O₅ 0.08 g/kg）对鲜食型甘薯‘烟薯25’和‘普薯32’生长前期（栽后0~40 d）根系活力、根系形态分化、潜在块根重量、结薯数、薯块重量、根生物量、叶面积、茎叶生物量、根干物质分配比例、茎叶干物质分配比例及根冠比的影响。结果表明,在块根形成期（栽后0~30 d）,与不施磷处理相比,适量施磷显著提高了甘薯总根条数、根尖数、总根长、根系表面积、根系平均直径、根系体积和总根鲜重,并显著提高了根系活力,提高了潜在块根鲜重;显著提高叶面积、叶鲜重、茎鲜重、地上部总鲜重;显著提高甘薯茎叶干重、根干重和植株干重,显著增加干物质根分配比例,降低干物质茎叶分配比,显著提高根冠比,为块根形成提供良好的物质基础。而过量施磷抑制干物质在根中的分配比例,导致根冠比降低,不利于块根的形成。在封垄期（栽后40 d）,与不施磷处理相比,适量施磷可以显著增加单株结薯数（主要提高直径5 mm以上的块根数量）、单薯重和单株薯重,若继续增加施磷量将导致单株结薯数和单薯重显著降低。因此,适量施磷可以促进甘薯根系和茎叶发育,增加干物质根分配比例,降低干物质茎叶分配比,显著提高根冠比,增加甘薯单株结薯数和单薯重,提高单株薯重,促进甘薯生长前期源库关系建立和平衡,为甘薯丰产奠定基础。     

Initial bacteria] numbers on lucerne prior to ensiling

Populations of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) on lucerne before and after havesting were extensively monitored over a two-year period and correlated with weather data, various wilting parameters and equipment used for harvest. The LAB on standing lucerne were below detectable levels (<10 colony forming units (CFU) g lucerne⁻¹). Immediately after mowing, low levels of LAB (51 CFU g⁻¹) were found on over half the samples. During wilting, the population of LAB generally increased. The amount of increase was affected primarily by the average air temperature during wilting, the length of wilting and the drying rate. The first two variables were positively correlated with bacterial growth whereas increased drying rate adversely affected LAB numbers. If the LAB numbers in the swath were below 100 CFU g⁻¹ prior to chopping, the forage harvester inoculated the chopped lucerne an level of 10² to 10⁴ CFU g⁻¹, depending on air temperature. Considering these factors, LAB counts on chopped lucerne could be predicted within one order of magnitude approximately 95% of the time.     

Grazing effects on shoot and root dynamics and above- and below-ground non-structural carbohydrate in Caucasian bluestem

The objective of this study was to characterize changes in morphology and shoot/root total nonstructural carbohydrate (TNC) relationships in Caucasian bluestem (Bothriochloa caucasica) under grazing. Pastures were continuously grazed by steers weighing about 225 kg from mid-May to late September of 1983 and 1984. Heavily grazed (H) swards produced more tillers m⁻¹ than lightly grazed (L) swards. Number of tillers declined in both treatments during the midsummer drought period; however, the reduction was much less in H than in L swards. Above normal precipitation in August 1983 allowed number of tillers to rapidly recover (by approximately 4000 and 8000 m⁻¹ for L and H treatments, respectively) reaching 10 700 and 17 800 tillers m⁻¹ respectively, in late September. After 2 years of grazing, H swards initiated twice as many roots on an area basis; however, ability to penetrate soil to lower depths may have been reduced. Heavily grazed Caucasian bluestem had lower concentrations of total non-structural carbohydrate (TNC) in shoots ( P < 0.04) in both years, but had higher (28% at the end of 1984) TNC concentration in roots compared to lightly grazed ( P = 001) plants. Greater root mass was found in lightly grazed swards; therefore, we suggest that root growth and TNC concentration tend to be inversely related. Total amount of TNC was higher in L swards, but during the course of the study total above and below-ground TNC in H swards remained stable. Total above-ground TNC pools are subject to short-term variation and dilution from senescent herbage, thus TNC pools in individual plant parts may be a better indication of plant response.     

The effect of lodging on 14C-assimilate distribution after anthesis in Lolium perenne, CV. S24, grown for seed

Field experiments in 1981 and 1981 examined assimilate distribution in lodged and non-lodged plots of perennial ryegrass ( Lolium perenne) , cv. S24, grown for seed. Lodging was prevented either mechanically (1982 only) or chemically, by application of paclobutrazol (PP333) at 2 0 kg a.i. ha^-1. For each treatment, main-tiller ears, stems and leaves and subtending vegetative tillers were fed with ¹⁴CO₂ at 24 and 17 days after anthesis in 1981 and 1982, respectively, and the pattern of ¹⁴C-assimilate export from each fed part was determined.
Prevention of lodging increased assimilate movement to the ear from the flag leaf, although movement from main-tiller leaves was primarily downwards to vegetative tillers. Assimilate movement to the stem was also increased because the cessation of stem elongation was delayed, especially where lodging was prevented by PP333. Both increases were at the expense of the tillers, although their number was not reduced in non-lodged plots. Possible reasons for these changes in assimilate distribution are discussed.     

The influence of defoliation height on dry-matter partitioning and CO2 exchange of perennial ryegrass miniature swards

This study investigated the effects of defoliation intensity on the above- and below-ground plant mass, rates of CO₂ exchange and leaf appearance rate of ryegrass miniature swards maintained at constant cutting height ranging from 20 mm to 160 mm for 5 months. Total plant mass, above-ground herbage mass and root mass increased as cutting height increased from 20 to 120 mm. Further increase in cutting height did not increase total plant mass or its components. Leaf appearance rate and photosynthesis per unit of leaf dry matter (DM) decreased as defoliation height increased from 20 to 160 mm. Gross and net CO₂ uptake per unit soil surface area increased with cutting height to 120 mm. Further increase in cutting height to 160 mm decreased gross and net CO₂ uptake and herbage harvested. A multivariate canonical discriminant analysis indicated different responses of root and shoot mass to cutting height and a reduction in CO₂ uptake rate at the 160 mm cutting height. The implications of those responses to defoliation management of forage plants are discussed.     

不同施氮水平下菠萝蜜幼苗根系生长及氮素吸收特征

为探究酰胺态氮肥在菠萝蜜苗期的最佳施用量,本试验以马来西亚1号嫁接苗为试验材料,比较不同施氮量对菠萝蜜幼苗根系生长及氮素吸收积累的影响。结果表明:随着施氮量增加,菠萝蜜幼苗叶片、茎秆、地上部和整株生物量,叶片氮素累积量、茎秆氮素累积量和总氮素累积量均呈先升高后降低的趋势,且均在施氮量为N1(5g/株)时达最大值;根系生物量和根冠比在N1时达最小值。根系氮素累积量随着施氮量增加呈增长趋势。总根长、根系总表面积及根系体积随着施氮量增加呈降低趋势,其中N1水平与N0(0 g/株)无显著性差异。总根长、根系总表面积、根系体积与地上部干重呈显著正相关关系。施肥、地上部氮素累积量和总根长单个因子以及三者共同解释菠萝蜜苗生物量变化的比例为90.1%。综上,在本试验条件下,菠萝蜜幼苗适宜的施氮量为5 g/株,可作为菠萝蜜苗期施肥的参考值。     

Determination of microbial protein in perennial ryegrass silage

The microbial matter fraction was determined in perennial ryegrass silages of different dry-matter (DM) contents, ensiled with or without Lactobacillus plantarum . ¹⁵N-Leucine and the bacterial cell wall constituent diaminopimelic acid (DAPA) were used as markers for microbial-N. Perennial ryegrass crops with DM contents of 202, 280 or 366 g kg⁻¹ fresh weight were ensiled in laboratory-scale silos and stored for 3 to 4 months. At different times after ensiling, silages were analysed and microbial fractions were isolated. Microbial-N concentration determined with ¹⁵N-leucine reached a maximum during the first week of ensilage. It remained unchanged thereafter, except in silage with a DM content of 280 g kg⁻¹ in which it decreased ( P  < 0·01) by 32% during storage. After 3 to 4 months ensilage, microbial-N concentration varied from ≈0·3 to ≈1·7 g kg⁻¹ DM. A negative relationship was observed between microbial-N concentration and silage DM content. Inoculation resulted in an approximately twofold increase ( P  < 0·001) in microbial-N concentration. Microbial-N concentrations determined with DAPA were 1·14–2·07 times higher than those determined with ¹⁵N-leucine. However, 19–35% of the DAPA in silage occurred in a soluble form, indicating that this fraction of DAPA was not associated with intact bacteria.     

砷胁迫下磷用量对不同磷效率水稻苗生长、磷和砷吸收的影响

 通过盆栽试验研究了苗期砷胁迫下磷用量对磷高效水稻99011和磷低效水稻99056生长以及对P、As吸收的影响。试验设3个磷水平（0、30、150 mg/kg）和5个砷水平（0、25、50、100、200 mg/kg）。结果表明,苗期施砷显著增加了两个水稻品种地上部及地下部砷的含量,降低了两个水稻品种的株高、分蘖数、地上部及地下部干质量;施磷不但促进了两个水稻品种的生长,而且还增加了根系对砷的吸收量。当土壤砷浓度为25 mg/kg和50 mg/kg时,施用30 mg/kg磷抑制了两个水稻品种砷向地上部的转移,但施用150 mg/kg磷却促进了砷向地上部的转移。相同的处理,磷高效水稻99011地上部干质量和根干质量均显著高于磷低效水稻99056。施砷后,在30 mg/kg磷水平上磷低效水稻99056的砷转移系数最低。     

Shoot growth potential drives N uptake in maize plants and correlates with root growth in the soil

Variation in nitrogen (N) acquisition ability is known to exist among maize genotypes. Field experiments were conducted and the N-efficient maize inbred line 478 and the N-inefficient line Wu312 were employed to illustrate whether the amount of N taken up in maize plants with different N acquisition ability was determined by the shoot growth potential or by the root size. To meet the accelerated growth of the shoot from the jointing stage to the grain-filling stage, the net N gain in whole plants of both genotypes increased dramatically and accounted for 77% and 74% of the total N increment in 478 and Wu312, respectively. Similarly, the 4th to 8th nodal root whorls were initiated predominantly between 35 and 76 d after sowing, which accounted for about 90% of the total root length on 93 d after sowing. The whole plant N content of the N-efficient 478 was significantly higher than that of the N-inefficient Wu312. 478 had also longer root length, including axial and lateral roots, of the embryonic roots and each whorl of shoot-borne roots, and greater root length density (RLD) than Wu312. In spite of the smaller root size, Wu312 had higher shoot N concentration than 478 during the whole growth period, implying that N was not limited for shoot growth in Wu312. It was concluded that maize root growth, especially initiation and development of the shoot-borne roots, as well as the amount of N taken up were coordinated with shoot growth and demand for nutrients. Although a large root system and high RLD in the soil profile were beneficial for efficient N acquisition, amount of N taken up by the two maize genotypes in the presence of sufficient N supply was determined by the shoot growth potential, and not by the root size.