Central neuron initiation of periodic gill movements

In Aplysia periodic spontaneous gill movements are controlled by activity endogenous to the abdominal ganglion. These movements were still observed when only the ctenidio-genital nerve was left intact between the ganglion and the gill. One kind of spontaneous gill movement (one per 5 minutes at 15 degrees C) was correlated with the expression of activity of interneuron II; others were not. With reference to this kind of spontaneous gill movement, four types of central neurons in the ganglion send processes to the gill via the nerve. Two cell types (ii, iii) are inhibited and the other two (i, iv) are excited. Two types (i, ii) elicited gill movement-one type activating large gill areas elicited spontaneous gill movements, and the other activating specific gill regions did not participate in the spontaneous gill movements. The value of this preparation in studying the role of central neurons eliciting specific patterned movements and the temporal organization of their activity is shown.     

Operant control of eye movements during human vigilance

Eye movements were used as a criterion of observing responses in a vigilance task. Time on watch and signal rates similarly affected both eye-movement rates and percentage of detections. Observing rate may account for detection data, and may be a more stable measure of vigilance than detection rate is, especially when very few signals occur.     

大口黑鲈和蓝鳃太阳鱼鳃结构的扫描电镜观察

应用扫描电镜对大口黑鲈Micropterus salmoides和蓝鳃太阳鱼Lepomis macrochirus鳃的表面微细结构进行了观察。结果表明:大口黑鲈和蓝鳃太阳鱼鳃的表面结构和微细结构与其它硬骨鱼类基本相似,鳃弓和鳃耙表面被具环形微嵴的上皮细胞所覆盖,表面观凹凸不平;大口黑鲈鳃耙的尖齿直径和长度分别为蓝鳃太阳鱼鳃耙的3.4³.8倍和2.13.8倍和2.1³.8倍;两种鱼的鳃丝末端略为膨大呈勺状,鳃丝表面都具有规则或不规则分布的环形微嵴、沟、坑、孔等结构;大口黑鲈鳃丝之间的距离相对较大,蓝鳃太阳鱼的鳃丝间距离仅为大口黑鲈的83%3.8倍;两种鱼的鳃丝末端略为膨大呈勺状,鳃丝表面都具有规则或不规则分布的环形微嵴、沟、坑、孔等结构;大口黑鲈鳃丝之间的距离相对较大,蓝鳃太阳鱼的鳃丝间距离仅为大口黑鲈的83%⁸8%;大口黑鲈鳃小片的高度、厚度和片间距都大于蓝鳃太阳鱼。文中还比较探讨了大口黑鲈和蓝鳃太阳鱼的形态结构与其生理功能之间的关系。     

大口黑鲈和蓝鳃太阳鱼鳃结构的扫描电镜观察

应用扫描电镜对大口黑鲈Micropterus salmoides和蓝鳃太阳鱼Lepomis macrochirus鳃的表面微细结构进行了观察。结果表明：大口黑鲈和蓝鳃太阳鱼鳃的表面结构和微细结构与其它硬骨鱼类基本相似,鳃弓和鳃耙表面被具环形微嵴的上皮细胞所覆盖,表面观凹凸不平;大口黑鲈鳃耙的尖齿直径和长度分别为蓝鳃太阳鱼鳃耙的3.4-3.8倍和2.1-3.8倍;两种鱼的鳃丝末端略为膨大呈勺状,鳃丝表面都具有规则或不规则分布的环形微嵴、沟、坑、孔等结构;大口黑鲈鳃丝之间的距离相对较大,蓝鳃太阳鱼的鳃丝间距离仅为大口黑鲈的83%-88%;大口黑鲈鳃小片的高度、厚度和片间距都大于蓝鳃太阳鱼。文中还比较探讨了大口黑鲈和蓝鳃太阳鱼的形态结构与其生理功能之间的关系。     

Central synaptic inputs to identified leech neurons determined by peripheral targets

Developing Retzius (Rz) neurons in different segments of the central nervous system of the medicinal leech have different peripheral targets: Rz cells in standard segments innervate the body wall, whereas Rz cells in the reproductive segments innervate reproductive tissue. Early removal of reproductive tissue primordia causes reproductive Rz cells to develop morphologically like their standard segmental homologs, suggesting that Rz cells depend on peripheral targets for signals that determine their central and peripheral morphology. Furthermore, after removal of reproductive tissue, reproductive Rz cells also receive synaptic inputs normally appropriate for standard Rz cells. These results suggest that the functional identity of these neurons is specified by the target they contact during embryogenesis.     

Behavioral dissociation of dishabituation, sensitization, and inhibition in Aplysia

Three forms of nonassociative learning (habituation, dishabituation, and sensitization) have commonly been explained by a dual-process view in which a single decrementing process produces habituation and a single facilitatory process produces both dishabituation and sensitization. A key prediction of this view is that dishabituation and sensitization should always occur together. However, we show that dishabituation and sensitization, as well as an additional process, inhibition, can be behaviorally dissociated in Aplysia by (i) their differential time of onset, (ii) their differential sensitivity to stimulus intensity, and (iii) their differential emergence during development. A simple dual-process view cannot explain these results; rather, a multiprocess view appears necessary to account for nonassociative learning in Aplysia.     

Bilateral symmetry and interneuronal organization in the buccal ganglia of Aplysia

Principles of functional organization of the bilaterally symmetric buccal ganglia of Aplysia were studied in 20 identified cells used as a reference population. Four of the identified cells (two in each ganglion) are multiaction interneurons, each of which innervates six identified ipsilateral follower cells, mediating cholinergic excitation to one cell and cholinergic inhibition to five others. Bilateral coordination is effected by common inputs to all four interneurons. Ipsilateral pairs of interneurons are electrotonically coupled and produce identical synaptic actions on their common follower population. This apparent redundancy of interneuronal action leads to feed-forward summation, eliciting amplified synaptic output from each interneuron pair.     

Long-term sensitization of a defensive withdrawal reflex in Aplysia

When a weak tactile stimulus is applied to the siphon of Aplysia californica, the animal withdraws the siphon between the parapodia. This defensive withdrawal reflex can be facilitated (sensitized) if the animal is previously given 4 days of training, consisting of four brief noxious stimuli each day. The sensitization of this reflex can last for up to 3 weeks after training and is mediated by the abdominal ganglion which also mediates long-term habituation. This preparation may provide a system for analyzing the neural mechanism of long-term behavioral modifications of complexity which is intermediate between habituation and associative learning.     

Neuronal correlates of habituation and dishabituation of the gill-withdrawal reflex in Aplysia

We have examinived the nieural correlates of habittuatiotn atid dishabitiuation of tlhe gill-withdrwal reflex in Aplysia. We obtained intracelllular recordings from identified gill motor neurons in the abdominal ganglionz of a semi-intact preparation of Aplysia wlhile we simultaneously recorded behavior responises of the gill. Habituation and dishabituation were not due to peripheral changes in either the sensory receptors or the gill musculature butt were caused by changes in the amplitlude of the excitatory synaptic potentials produced at the gill motor neurons.     

Long-term facilitation in Aplysia involves increase in transmitter release

In a variety of vertebrates and invertebrates, long-lasting enhancement of synaptic transmission contributes to the storage of memory lasting one or more days. However, it has not been demonstrated directly whether this increase in synaptic transmission is caused by an enhancement of transmitter release or an increase in the sensitivity of the postsynaptic receptors. These possibilities can be distinguished by a quantal analysis in which the size of the miniature excitatory postsynaptic potential released spontaneously from the presynaptic terminal is used as a reference. By means of microcultures, in which single sensory and motor neurons of Aplysia were plated together, miniature excitatory postsynaptic potentials attributable to the spontaneous release of single transmitter quanta from individual presynaptic neurons were recorded and used to analyze long-term facilitation induced by repeated applications of 5-hydroxytryptamine. The results indicate that the facilitation is caused by an increase in the number of transmitter quanta released by the presynaptic neuron.     

Low internal conductivity of Aplysia neuron somata

The internal conductivity of Aplysia neuron somata was measured by passing constant current pulses across a calibrated four-electrode array. The intracellular medium is less than one-tenth as conductive as seawater. The low conductivity probably results from structured cell water since ions are present in quantity and do not appear to be bound.     

Selective recording and stimulation of individual identified neurons in freely behaving Aplysia

A neuroethological technique is described for selective recording and stimulation of an individual neuron in freely behaving Aplysia by means of a fine wire glued into the connective tissue sheath above the identified cell body. A whole-nerve cuff electrode simultaneously monitored functionally related multiunit axon activity. For biophysical analysis the soma was impaled with a microelectrode when the ganglion was subsequently exposed. The technique is illustrated for several identified neurons involved in different behaviors.     

汞在松浦鲤体内的转化及对鳃组织的损伤

探讨了水体中汞在松浦鲤Cyprinus(cyprinus)carpio体内的转化及对鳃组织的损伤。试验表明。进入鱼体内的无机汞经甲基化作用可生成甲基汞。当汞的浓度≥10μg／L时,随着试验时间的延长。鲤的鳃组织分泌的粘液逐渐增多;当汞的浓度为20μg／L,试验时间为10d以上时,鳃小片弯曲,上皮肿胀;当汞的浓度为20μg／L、20d以上,以及汞的浓度≥30μg／L时,鳃小片顶端充血呈球状或棒状;当汞的浓度为40μg／L、30d以上时,相邻的几条鳃丝融合,有的鳃小片细胞脱落,甚至出现鳃小片组织解体,严重地影响了鳃正常的气体交换功能。     

Brainstem temperature affects gill ventilation in the california scorpionfish

California scorpionfish, Scorpaena guttata, were implanted with a pair of thermodes which straddled the anterior brainstem. When the fish were in water of about 20 degrees C, warming the thermodes to temperatures above 20 degrees C caused a proportional increase in the ventilatory minute volume. Cooling the thermodes below 20 degrees C caused a proportional decrease in the ventilatory minute volume. It is concluded that the anterior brainstem temperature provides an important input to the respiratory control center in teleost fish.     

Sexual pheromone in some fishes of the genus Hypsoblennius gill

A pheromone found in the males of some species of Hypsoblennius apparently facilitates male courtship by releasing sexual appetitive behavior and by increasing sexual receptivity.     

Choline acetyltransferase: regional distribution in the abdominal ganglion of Aplysia

Using a new microassay, we have determined the properties and the regional distribution of choline acetyltransferase in the abdominal ganglion of Aplysia. Enzyme concentrations in homogenates of groups of cells and in single identified cells indicate that neurons which function as neurosecretory cells, and which do not form chemical synapses with other cells or with peripheral structures, have little or no ability to synthesize acetylcholine; neurons which are involved in visceromotor integrations, and which connect with each other or with the periphery, have a substantial concentration of the enzyme.     

Target-dependent structural changes accompanying long-term synaptic facilitation in Aplysia neurons

The mechanisms underlying structural changes that accompany learning and memory have been difficult to investigate in the intact nervous system. In order to make these changes more accessible for experimental analysis, dissociated cell culture and low-light-level video microscopy were used to examine Aplysia sensory neurons in the presence or absence of their target cells. Repeated applications of serotonin, a facilitating transmitter important in behavioral dishabituation and sensitization, produced growth of the sensory neurons that paralleled the long-term enhancement of synaptic strength. This growth required the presence of the postsynaptic motor neuron. Thus, both the structural changes and the synaptic facilitation of Aplysia sensorimotor synapses accompanying long-term behavioral sensitization can be produced in vitro by applying a single facilitating transmitter repeatedly. These structural changes depend on an interaction of the presynaptic neuron with an appropriate postsynaptic target.     

Long-term sensitization in Aplysia: biophysical correlates in tail sensory neurons

A fundamental problem in the cellular analysis of learning and memory is the identification of the neuronal substrates of long-term information storage and their relation to short-term cellular alterations. In this report, biophysical correlates of long-term sensitization of a simple withdrawal reflex in the mollusc Aplysia were examined. A voltage-clamp analysis of the sensory neurons that control the reflex, 24 hours after sensitization training, revealed a significant reduction in net outward current. The results indicate that one mechanism for the storage of long-term sensitization is the regulation of membrane currents that influence the characteristics of the action potential and the excitability of individual neurons. The results also provide insights into the relation between short- and long-term sensitization in that the biophysical loci involved in the storage of long-term sensitization appear similar to those involved in short-term sensitization.     

A critical period for macromolecular synthesis in long-term heterosynaptic facilitation in Aplysia

Both long-term and short-term sensitization of the gill and siphon withdrawal reflex in Aplysia involve facilitation of the monosynaptic connections between the sensory and motor neurons. To analyze the relationship between these two forms of synaptic facilitation at the cellular and molecular level, this monosynaptic sensorimotor component of the gill-withdrawal reflex of Aplysia can be reconstituted in dissociated cell culture. Whereas one brief application of 1 microM serotonin produced short-term facilitation in the sensorimotor connection that lasted minutes, five applications over 1.5 hours resulted in long-term facilitation that lasted more than 24 hours. Inhibitors of protein synthesis or RNA synthesis selectively blocked long-term facilitation, but not short-term facilitation, indicating that long-term facilitation requires the expression of gene products not essential for short-term facilitation. Moreover, the inhibitors only blocked long-term facilitation when given during the serotonin applications; the inhibitors did not block the facilitation when given either before or after serotonin application. These results parallel those for behavioral performance in vertebrates and indicate that the critical time window characteristic of the requirement for macromolecular synthesis in long-term heterosynaptic facilitation is not a property of complex circuitry, but an intrinsic characteristic of specific nerve cells and synaptic connections involved in the long-term storage of information.