Emergency and critical care of fish.

Most fish emergencies are the result of inappropriate environmental conditions and primary or secondary infectious disease or trauma. The immediate response should be to increase aeration, provide suitable water, and decrease stressors. A thorough history, evaluation of the fish and their environment, and some rapid diagnostic tests (particularly direct and stained cytology) often provide the information needed to make a diagnosis and render appropriate treatment. When cohorts are at risk and the patient is unlikely to recover, euthanasia and necropsy are recommended to reach a definitive diagnosis. Some common emergencies include ammonia and nitrite toxicity; low dissolved oxygen; copper and chlorine toxicity; gas supersaturation; and certain bacterial, protozoal, and viral diseases.     

Emergency and critical care of rodents.

Rodents may be presented on an emergency basis with various conditions causing debilitation and disease. Common causes of emergent presentations include trauma, respiratory disease, dental disease, gastrointestinal disease, reproductive disorders, and urinary tract obstruction. Emergency treatment should always include immediate stabilization of the patient until the patient is able to tolerate diagnostic testing and additional therapeutics. Rodent patients benefit from supportive care, including thermal, fluid, and nutritional support. Administration of cardiopulmonary resuscitation, antibiotics, and analgesics through various routes is also appropriate. This article presents an overview of emergency medicine in rodents, including emergency procedures, handling and restraint, triage and patient assessment, sample collection, and supportive care procedures. The most common emergency presentations for rodents are also discussed.     

Emergency and critical care of ferrets.

Gastrointestinal disease, neoplasia, cardiac disease, and endocrinopathy are among the most common syndromes affecting the ferret that presents in an emergency situation. Knowledge of these and other disease processes, indicated diagnostic testing, and immediate treatment protocols are critical to provide efficient and effective care to the ferret in crisis.     

Emergency and critical care of pet birds.

Critically ill birds must be assessed accurately and provided with immediate supportive care. This article reviews the assessment and diagnostics required for evaluating the critical avian patient. The most common emergencies seen in pet birds are discussed. Diagnostics and treatments protocols are provided to help direct the practitioner toward a complete recovery.     

Emergency care of raptors.

Raptors may present with a variety of conditions, such as trauma, debilitation, and disease, that necessitate emergency care. Emergency treatment should prioritize stabilization of the patient. Diagnostic testing should be delayed until feasible based on patient status. This article reviews emergency medicine in raptors, including appropriate handling and restraint, hospitalization, triage and patient assessment, sample collection, supportive care, and common emergency presentations.     

Emergency care of reptiles.

Common reptile emergencies are reviewed in this article and the fundamentals of emergency care are provided. Important points include obtaining a complete history and husbandry review, physical examination, diagnostic tests, fluid support, anesthetics, and antibiotics.     

Emergency care of invertebrates.

Invertebrate species are commonly kept as pets as well as display and research animals. Clinicians interested in zoologic medicine should be prepared to provide veterinary care for these interesting creatures. This article provides an overview on the critical care of commonly encountered invertebrate species.     

Emergency care of raptors.

Emergency care of raptors often requires extensive diagnostics and therapeutic regimens to stabilize and support the ill or injured raptor. Whether falconry birds, educational birds, or raptors from the wild are presented, various medical conditions must be addressed to help guide the practitioner toward a complete recovery for the raptor.     

Emergency care of invertebrates.

Invertebrates are of increasing importance to the veterinary profession, but little scientifically-based information exists on their emergency care. Therefore, basic principles--supportive care, including administration of fluids, and specific therapy (where available)--must be followed up on. Knowledge and understanding of the biology and natural history of these animals are essential if critical care is to prove successful.     

Neonatal critical care.

The first few minutes after a neonate's birth may determine the quality of its entire life. Immediate care includes prevention of hypothermia, clearing of nasal and oral passages, stimulation of ventilation and oxygenation, and, in a few cases, advanced life support. Any additional stress during the first weeks of life can also result in neonatal morbidity and mortality. Care of the diseased newborn must focus not only on treatment of the underlying disease but on aggressive supportive care. A safe, warm, clean, proper environment and adequate nutrition are essential.     

Pet fish care and husbandry.

This article guides the technician through the basic principles of fish health. Nutrition, including the proper storage of fish foods, is discussed,as are the varying dietary needs of fish. The ability to recognize water-quality problems is emphasized, especially the conditions that commonly result in high mortality. Collection of specimens for microscopic examination or other diagnostic tests is explained.     

Amphibian emergency and critical care.

Amphibians present unique challenges for the clinician in the diagnosis and treatment of life-threatening conditions. Their adaptability to both aquatic and terrestrial lifestyles leaves them vulnerable to dehydration and fluid overload, either of which may accompany serious disease. This article presents the most common emergency conditions in amphibians, the physiologic basis of disease, and a guide to the diagnosis and treatment of amphibian emergencies.     

Small mammal critical care.

In emergency situations, veterinarians often are presented with critical patients of any species. The principles for critical care in traditional species such as the dog or cat can be applied to other small mammals. Although there are many unique aspects of the anatomy and physiology of different species, emergency care of small mammals can be instituted with the adaptation of products found in many general practices. Careful assessment of the patient, prioritization of the injuries, and rapid intervention can be life saving in any species.     

Analgesia in critical care.

All medical interventions, including the provision of analgesia, are associated with risks and benefits, which, when considered together, comprise that intervention's risk/benefit ratio. All interventions have alternatives (including no intervention), and each alternative possesses its own risk/benefit ratio. Clinical decision making involves comparing and contrasting the risk/benefit ratios of alternative interventions (relative risk/benefit ratio). The most formidable limitations of drug treatment relate to their potential to produce pharmacologic side effects or complications. Careful monitoring and the use of strategies for preventing and managing drug side effects are often all that is required to maintain efficacy.     

Emergency care for potbellied pigs.

Because of the limited number of veterinarians treating potbellied pigs, many pet pigs do not receive proper preventative health care. The potbellied pig's continued popularity among urban dwellers ensures that veterinarians who treat small and exotic animals will be contacted by owners of pet pigs with real or perceived emergencies. Regardless of their knowledge of swine, the information contained in this article should enable any veterinarian to provide basic emergency care for pet pigs.     

Nutritional support in critical care patients.

Malnutrition in the form of insufficient nutrient intake to support tissue metabolism undermines appropriate medical or surgical therapeutic management of a case. The major consequences of malnutrition in all patients are decreased immunocompetence, decreased tissue synthesis and repair, and altered intermediary drug metabolism. A practical goal is to begin nutritional support within 24 hours of the injury, illness, or presentation. There are only two methods by which nutrients can be supplied to the body: enteral and parenteral. General guidelines are presented to help establish a foundation.     

Tropical fish medicine. Providing veterinary care to the commercial fish farmer

The veterinarian with experience in preventive and herd health medicine is in a unique position to help the tropical fish farmer reduce losses and increase profits. This goal can best be accomplished through a comprehensive medical consultation program involving both problem-oriented and preventive medicine.     

Respiratory pharmacotherapy in emergency and critical care medicine.

Successful pharmacologic management of most respiratory diseases is possible. All moderately to severely affected animals benefit from rest and supplemental oxygen. Careful identification of the underlying cause as well as an understanding of the pathophysiology behind various diseases is essential to successful patient outcome.     

Cardiac emergencies and problems of the critical care patient.

Cardiac disease and dysfunction can occur as a primary disorder(ie, with pathology situated in one or more of the cardiac structures) or can be classified as a secondary problem when it occurs in patients with another primary problem that has affected the heart either directly or indirectly. Primary cardiac problems are encountered in horses presented to emergency clinics; however,this occurs much less frequently in equine critical patients than cardiac problems arising secondary to other conditions. Nevertheless,if primary or secondary cardiac problems are not identified and addressed, they certainly contribute to the morbidity and mortality of critical care patients.