Prevalence of cutaneous pathological conditions and factors associated with the presence of skin wounds in working equids in tropical regions of Veracruz,Mexico

A wide spectrum of welfare issues is encountered on working equids. The objectives of this study were: (i) to determine the prevalence of cutaneous lesions in working equids in tropical regions of the North-Central of Veracruz State, Mexico, (ii) to identify the most prevalent cutaneous pathological conditions in this population of working equids, and (iii) to identify risk factors associated to the presence of work-related skin wounds. A number of 467 working equids presented for treatment at Donkey Sanctuary Mobile Clinic Program - National Autonomous University of Mexico from seven different villages in the North-Central region of Veracruz State were evaluated. Animals with signs of cutaneous pathology underwent a physical examination and samples were obtained of exudates, hair, and tissue for cytology examination, fungal cultures, and dermo-histopathology examination. The overall prevalence of cutaneous pathological conditions in working equids was 20.6 %. The prevalence per species was 22.6 % for horses, 18.2 % for donkeys, and 14.3 % for mules. The most common cause of skin lesions was trauma (abrasions, lacerations, and abscesses) followed in frequency by parasitic dermatitis and sarcoids. No strong associations among species were observed (P?>?0.20). Multivariate analysis showed that there was greater association between BCS and age with the presence of skin wounds (P?<?0.05). Equids who's BCS was rated as “moderate” as well as adult animals showed significantly more skin wounds compared with the young and the elderly (P?<?0.05). These findings can help to develop a better management practices to improve the welfare of equids in tropical regions of Veracruz, Mexico.     

Gastrointestinal nematode burden in working equids from humid tropical areas of central Veracruz, Mexico, and its relationship with body condition and haematological values

The east coast of Veracruz, Mexico, has an important equine population used for working in rural production systems. The objectives of this study were (1) to calculate the prevalence of tropical working equids (donkeys, mules and horses) infected with gastrointestinal nematodes (GINs) and the GINs involved, and (2) to measure the body condition score (BCS) and haematological values for each working equid and its relationship with faecal worm egg count (EPG). One hundred and forty working equids were randomly selected from five different villages along the central coast of the state of Veracruz and faecal and blood samples were obtained from each animal. Gastrointestinal parasite burdens were determined using the McMaster technique. Packed cell volume, total plasma proteins, red blood cell count and white blood cell count were measured from each blood sample. Prevalence of infected equids was higher than 90 %. Mules had the highest median faecal worm egg counts (875 EPG), followed by horses and donkeys with 400 EPG. There was no correlation between EPG and BCS or haematological values (p?>?0.05). Results suggest that despite the high prevalence and parasite burdens, equids involved in this trial are not being seriously affected. This study provides information which might help in designing future strategies to control nematode infections in working equids in the Mexican tropics; more emphasis should be placed on other inputs (nutrition perhaps), with individual anthelminthic treatment to those animals with the highest EPG or when signs present themselves.     

Prevalence of equine herpesvirus-1 and equine herpesvirus-4 infections in equidae species in Turkey as determined by ELISA and multiplex nested PCR

In this report we examined the presence of specific antibodies against equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1), and equine herpesvirus type 4 (EHV-4) in several equidae, including mules, donkeys, horses. The presence of EHV-1 and EHV-4 in respiratory diseases of equids, and ability of multiplex nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) screening in simultaneous diagnosis of horses acutely infected by EHV-1 and EHV-4 were also investigated. Sera from 504 horses, mules and donkeys sampled were tested for the presence of EHV-1 and EHV-4 specific antibodies. Blood samples taken from 21 symptomatic horses and nasal swabs taken from 40 symptomatic horses were tested for the presence of EHV-1 and EHV-4 by a multiplex nested PCR. A total of 14.3% (3/21) of buffy coat samples and 32.5% (13/40) nasal swab samples were found to contain EHV-1 DNA, while 19% (4/21) buffy coat samples and 22.5% (9/40) nasal swab samples were found to be positive for EHV-4 DNA. By species, 14.5% of horses, 37.2% of mules and 24.2% of donkeys tested were EHV-1 seropositive. EHV-4 specific antibodies were detected in 237 (81.7%) of 290 horse sera tested. Results from this investigation demonstrate that EHV-1 and EHV-4 are prevalent throughout the equid population, and that donkeys and mules might also represent an important source of infection for other equids. We also showed that the multiplex nested PCR assay might be useful for diagnosis of mixed respiratory infections in horses due to EHV-1 and EHV-4.     

Isolation of a gammaherpesvirus similar to asinine herpesvirus-2 (AHV-2) from a mule and a survey of mules and donkeys for AHV-2 infection by real-time PCR

Equids are commonly infected by herpesviruses, but isolation of herpesviruses from mules has apparently not been previously reported. Furthermore, the genomic relationships among the various equid herpesviruses are poorly characterized. We describe the isolation and preliminary characterization of a mule gammaherpesvirus tentatively identified as asinine herpesvirus-2 (AHV-2; also designated equid herpesvirus-7 (EHV-7)) from the nasal secretions (NS) of a healthy mule in northern California. The virus was initially identified by transmission electron microscopic examination of lysates of cell culture inoculated with NS collected from the mule. A 913 nucleotide sequence of the DNA polymerase gene was amplified using degenerate primers, and comparison of this sequence with those of various other herpesviruses showed that the mule herpesvirus was most closely related to EHV-2 (AHV-2 sequences were not available for comparison). The sequence of a shorter portion (166 nucleotides) of the mule herpesvirus DNA polymerase gene was identical to that of the published sequence of an asinine gammaherpesvirus, previously designated as AHV-4-3 (AY054992). AHV-2 was detected by real-time polymerase chain reaction assay in the NS of approximately 8% of a cohort of 114 healthy mules and 13 donkeys.     

Socioeconomic, health and management aspects of working donkeys in Moretele 1, North West Province, South Africa

Structured interviews using a questionnaire were conducted to gather information on socioeconomic aspects, health, nutrition, breeding and management of working equids in 3 study areas of Moretele 1 near Hammanskraal, North West Province, South Africa. The questionnaire addressed questions about the role of animals with a focus on donkeys used for work in these areas. Extension and animal health officers and donkey owners participated. The analysis highlights the use of donkeys for transport of water, wood and people; that ticks, wounds and harness sores are the conditions reported most frequently by owners; and that the range for the body condition score index of 2.7-4.0 suggests that an overall adequate level of nutrition and management is maintained in the donkeys in these villages.     

Assessment of the welfare of working horses, mules and donkeys, using health and behaviour parameters

Working animals provide an essential transport resource in developing countries worldwide. Many of these animals are owned by poor people and work in harsh environments, so their welfare is a cause for concern. A protocol was developed to assess the welfare of working horses, mules and donkeys in urban and peri-urban areas, using direct observation of health and behaviour parameters. In this study, 4903 animals used for draught, pack and ridden work in Afghanistan, Egypt, India, Jordan and Pakistan were assessed between December 2002 and April 2003. The data showed that donkeys were more likely than mules or horses to demonstrate avoidance or aggressive behaviour towards an observer, while horses were most likely to make a friendly approach. Fewer than 8% of working equines had abnormal mucous membranes, ectoparasites or poor coat condition. Body lesions occurred predominantly in the areas of the breast/shoulder, withers and girth in all three species, with mules having the highest prevalence of lesions in these areas (22.5, 21.3 and 28.4%, respectively). Among horses and donkeys, the prevalence of these lesions was influenced by the type of work carried out. Lesions on the head, neck, ribs, flank and tail base were seen in less than 10% of animals. Across all three species approximately 70% of animals were thin, having a body condition score (BCS) of 2 or less on a scale of 1–5 (1, very thin; 5, very fat) and more horses were in very thin condition (BCS 1) than mules or donkeys. Over 75% of animals demonstrated limb deformities and abnormalities of gait. The results of this study are being used as the initial stage of a long-term strategy to inform priorities for welfare interventions in working equines and to establish a welfare benchmark. Subsequent stages will rank the welfare concerns identified, assess the contributing risk factors and implement specific interventions to address these risks. Following intervention, success in improving welfare will be measured by repetition of this protocol and comparison with the benchmark.     

Molecular Analysis and Risk Factors Associated With Theileria equi Infection in Domestic Donkeys and Mules of Punjab,Pakistan

Theileriosis is an important disease of economic significance which badly affects the equine husbandry of developing countries. The present study was planned to investigate the molecular prevalence of theileriosis, associated risk factors, and alterations in hematological parameters of donkeys and mules from district Mianwali, Punjab, Pakistan. Blood samples from 150 equids (n = 75 donkeys; n = 75 mules) were examined microscopically, and the genomic DNA from each sample was processed for the amplification of the 18S rRNA gene of Theileria. The polymerase chain reaction confirmed isolates were purified followed by sequencing. The data regarding the analysis of risk factors were collected in a predesigned questionnaire and statistically analyzed by logistic regression analysis. An overall prevalence of 17.33% was noted in this study. Donkeys showed more prevalence followed by mules being 20.0% and 14.7%, respectively. The study isolates showed high resemblance (99%) with isolates from the United States of America, Spain, Brazil, Israel, Cuba, France, South Africa, Korea, Turkey, Tunisia, India, E. Caribbean, and Nigeria. The potential risk factors found to be significantly associated (P < .05) with disease dynamics were tick infestation on study animals, previous tick history, and house hygiene. A significant (P < .05) decrease in the number of platelets, erythrocytes, hemoglobin level, and packed cell volume was observed in donkeys and mules suffering from theileriosis compared with the healthy ones. The study is the first report regarding the molecular characterization of theileriosis in donkeys and mules in Pakistan. The findings will be effectual in designing effective control strategies for this disease in Punjab, Pakistan.     

Epidemiological Analysis of Leptospira spp. Infection in Equids from the Brejo Paraibano Microregion of Brazil

Leptospirosis is a zoonotic disease that occurs in humans and several animal species, including cattle, pigs, and horses, and it has a worldwide distribution. In equids, leptospirosis manifests through recurrent uveitis and abortion and other reproductive disorders. The objective of the present study was to investigate the epidemiological situation of Leptospira spp. infection in equids from the Brejo Paraibano microregion in the northeast of Brazil, that is, to assess the prevalence of and identify the major risk factors for infection. For this purpose, blood samples were taken from 257 equids (204 horses, 46 mules, and 7 donkeys), and a microscopic agglutination test (MAT) was used as serological analysis, with 24 serovars of Leptospira spp. as antigens. Antibodies were observed in 16.2% of horses, 13.0% of mules, and 28.6% of donkeys. Animals between the ages of 2.5 and 11 years had a risk of infection 0.4 times lower than those younger than 2.5 years old (odds ratio, 0.4; 95% confidence interval, 0.18-0.90). Further studies are needed to identify potential wild reservoirs and the main routes of infections.     

Performance and Management of Draught Animals in Agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa: A Review

Use of animal power generally enables farmers in sub-Saharan Africa to increase agricultural production and improve the quality of life. Effective use of working animals depends on an understanding of the capabilities of the animals for work, their husbandry requirements and the factors which can influence their performance. These issues are reviewed in this paper in the context of the use of animal power in agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa. The type of animal used for work determines power available to the farmer. The performance of donkeys, horses and cattle have been compared in work tests. Equids are more suited to rapid low draught activities where their faster speed can be used to advantage. At higher draught forces, where speed is less important, the additional weight and power of cattle are an advantage. Use of heart rate recovery after work gives a reasonable indication of fatigue and fitness of equids, when test conditions are standardized. Although feed requirements for work are generally low, feed quality can be so poor that animals are unable to eat enough to meet energy needs for work, and so lose weight during the work season. However, improvements in work performance are not always seen following supplementary feeding in the dry season and the economics need to be considered in each case. Food availability, diseases and heat stress, the major constraints to performance of draught cattle and donkeys working in sub-Saharan Africa, are discussed.     

Lungworms (Dictyocaulus arnfieldi): prevalence in live equids in Kentucky

Prevalence of natural infections of the lungworm, Dictyocaulus arnfieldi, was investigated in Kentucky in 5,437 live equids (horses, ponies, and asses) on 91 farms by examination of fecal samples over a 15-month-period from January 28, 1983 to April 19, 1984. For the 91 farms investigated, asses only were examined on 1 farm; for the other 90 farms, examinations were made of horses on all of them, of ponies on 4 farms, and of asses on 9 farms. Larvae of D arnfieldi were found in fecal samples of 112 (2%) of 5,379 horses on the 90 farms of which 38% had greater than or equal to 1 infected animal; none of 19 ponies examined was infected. For 39 asses (donkeys and mules) examined, 21 (54%) were infected; infected asses were present on 80% of the 10 farms on which they were examined. The equids, excluding asses, that were examined and the percentage (in parentheses) infected with D arnfieldi included 4,329 (2%) Thoroughbreds, 684 (2%) Standardbreds, 78 (0%) American Saddle Horses, and 307 (3%) miscellaneous (other breeds or mixed breeds of horses and ponies). Equids were separated into 3 categories relative to previous treatment with ivermectin: A (no treatment), B (treatment), and C (treatment unknown).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

A survey on the prevalence of internal parasites of equines in macedonia and Thessalia-Greece

A 3-year survey was conducted to determine the incidence of endoparasitic infection of equines in several regions of Macedonia and Thessalia, Greece. Three hundred fecal and 252 blood samples were examined. Fecal examination was carried out using. Teleman and Faust techniques while blood was examined according to the modified Knott technique. The Graham test was also performed. The prevalence of infection found was 62.4% for horses, 75.7% for donkeys and 89.2% for mules. Strongyles (large and small) were the most common parasitic species found, with a corresponding prevalence of 42.5% and 45.6% for horses, 73.0% and 37.8% for donkeys, and 89.2% for mules. Other parasites found were: Eimeria leuckarti (2.6% in horses and 8.1% in donkeys), Anoplocephala perfoliata (0.4% in horses), Parascaris equorum (1.7% in horses), Oxyuris equi (4.1% in horses and 8.7% in mules), Strongyloides westeri (2.2% in horses, 5.4% in donkeys and 10.8% in mules), Dictyocaulus arnfieldi (0.9% in horses and 2.7% in donkeys) and Setaria equina (2.2% in horses and 2.7% in donkeys).     

Penetrating injuries to the frog (cuneus ungulae) and collateral sulci of the foot in equids: 63 cases (1998-2008)

Objective-To determine the outcome of penetrating injuries to the central region of the foot in equids and identify factors that may affect treatment and outcome. Design-Retrospective case series. Animals-63 equids (61 horses, 1 pony, and 1 mule). Procedures-Records of equids incurring puncture wounds through the frog (cuneus ungulae) or collateral sulci of the foot between 1998 and 2008 were reviewed. Evaluated factors that were hypothesized to affect outcome included signalment, degree of lameness, foot affected, duration between injury and admission, and treatment. Injuries were graded from 1 (< 1 inch; involving superficial corium only) to 4 (involving a synovial structure) on the basis of severity of penetration as determined by radiographic evidence or findings on synoviocentesis at the time of admission. Results-Overall, 60% (38/63) of equids returned to soundness. Thirteen equids were euthanized on the basis of synovial structure involvement and financial constraints. Of 35 equids that were treated conservatively, which may have included undergoing a surgical procedure with the horse standing, 32 (91.4%) returned to their previous level of soundness. Fifteen equids underwent surgical treatment under general anesthesia, of which 6 (40%) became sound for intended use. Ten of 34 (29%) equids with synovial structure involvement regained soundness. Equids treated earlier after injury had a better prognosis. Equids with a hind foot injury had a more favorable outcome than those with a forefoot injury. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance-Results suggested that penetrating injuries located centrally in the foot of equids without involvement of a synovial structure have a favorable prognosis, especially if managed early. Penetration of a synovial structure provided a poor prognosis.     

Validation of a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for diagnosing Babesia equi infections of Moroccan origin and its use in determining the seroprevalence of B. equi in Morocco.

A highly specific and sensitive competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of specific antibody to Babesia equi in serum from equids was validated for use in Morocco. The assay is based on the specific inhibition of binding of a monoclonal antibody to a conserved epitope within a recombinant parasite peptide by serum from infected animals. The assay was compared to an established indirect immunofluorescence assay, with a concordance of 91%. The assay was used to determine seroprevalence for B. equi infections in donkeys and horses throughout Morocco. A total of 578 sera (163 horses and 415 donkeys) from 6 locations representing different bioclimatic regions were assayed. An analysis of variance, indicated no significant effect of location; however, donkeys were significantly more likely than horses to be seropositive. Management conditions contribute to greater tick infestations and thus Babesia exposure in donkeys than in horses.     

Pharmacokinetics of sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim in donkeys, mules, and horses

OBJECTIVE: To compare serum disposition of sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim after IV administration to donkeys, mules, and horses. ANIMALS: 5 donkeys, 5 mules, and 3 horses. PROCEDURE: Blood samples were collected before (time 0) and 5, 15, 30, and 45 minutes and 1, 1.25, 1.5, 1.75, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 6, 8, 10, and 24 hours after IV administration of sulfamethoxazole (12.5 mg/kg) and trimethoprim (2.5 mg/kg). Serum was analyzed in triplicate with high-performance liquid chromatography for determination of sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim concentrations. Serum concentration-time curve for each animal was analyzed separately to estimate noncompartmental pharmacokinetic variables. RESULTS: Clearance of trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole in donkeys was significantly faster than in mules or horses. In donkeys, mean residence time (MRT) of sulfamethoxazole (2.5 hours) was less than half the MRT in mules (6.2 hours); MRT of trimethoprim in donkeys (0.8 hours) was half that in horses (1.5 hours). Volume of distribution at steady state (Vdss) for sulfamethoxazole did not differ, but Vdss of trimethoprim was significantly greater in horses than mules or donkeys. Area under the curve for sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim was higher in mules than in horses or donkeys. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Dosing intervals for IV administration of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole in horses may not be appropriate for use in donkeys or mules. Donkeys eliminate the drugs rapidly, compared with horses. Ratios of trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole optimum for antibacterial activity are maintained for only a short duration in horses, donkeys, and mules.     

A review of African horse sickness and its implications for Ireland

ABSTRACT: African horse sickness is an economically highly important non-contagious but infectious Orbivirus disease that is transmitted by various species of Culicoides midges. The equids most severely affected by the virus are horses, ponies, and European donkeys; mules are somewhat less susceptible, and African donkeys and zebra are refractory to the devastating consequences of infection. In recent years, Bluetongue virus, an Orbivirus similar to African horse sickness, which also utilises Culicoides spp. as its vector, has drastically increased its range into previously unaffected regions in northern Europe, utilising indigenous vector species, and causing widespread economic damage to the agricultural sector. Considering these events, the current review outlines the history of African horse sickness, including information concerning virus structure, transmission, viraemia, overwintering ability, and the potential implications that an outbreak would have for Ireland. While the current risk for the introduction of African horse sickness to Ireland is considered at worst 'very low', it is important to note that prior to the 2006 outbreak of Bluetongue in northern Europe, both diseases were considered to be of equal risk to the United Kingdom ('medium-risk'). It is therefore likely that any outbreak of this disease would have serious socio-economic consequences for Ireland due to the high density of vulnerable equids and the prevalence of Culicoides species, potentially capable of vectoring the virus.     

Evaluation of microchip migration in horses, donkeys, and mules

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether microchips used for identification migrate after implantation in horses, donkeys, and mules. DESIGN: Prospective study. ANIMALS: 53 horses, donkeys, and mules. PROCEDURE: Twenty horses that had had microchips implanted in the nuchal ligament at a veterinary teaching hospital from 1996 through early 2000 were included (group 1), and the poll-to-withers distance and location of the microchip were determined, measured, and recorded. Additionally, the poll-to-withers distance was measured in 16 horses, 12 donkeys, and 5 mules (group 2), and microchips were implanted in the nuchal ligament on the left side of the neck. Forty-two to 67 days after implantation, the location of the microchip was determined, measured, and recorded. RESULTS: Microchips implanted in the nuchal ligament < or = 4 years previously did not migrate. All microchips were detected with a multimode identification tag reader from the left side of the neck in the midcervical region, and microchips were located at the midpoint between the poll and withers for all 53 horses, donkeys, and mules. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Microchips implanted in the nuchal ligament < or = 4 years earlier did not migrate in horses. Microchips may be useful for identification in horses.     

Helping working Equidae and their owners in developing countries: Monitoring and evaluation of evidence-based interventions

There are an estimated 112 million Equidae (horses, donkeys, mules) in the developing world, providing essential resources for their owners’ livelihoods and well-being. The impoverished situation of their owners and the often harsh conditions in which they work mean that the animals’ welfare is a cause for concern. A number of equine non-governmental organisations (NGOs) operate within working equid communities providing veterinary care, education and training programmes aimed at improving equine welfare. However, there is little published information available that describes monitoring and evaluation (M&E) of such interventions using objective outcome-based indicators and where baseline data are available. The aim of this paper is to summarise the peer-reviewed reports of M&E in this sector and identify the key issues which need to be addressed in ensuring that such evaluations provide useful information on the work of these organisations.A rigorous evidence base for designing future interventions will provide an opportunity for enhancing the effectiveness of working equid NGO operations. Increased availability of M&E reports in the peer-reviewed literature will enable NGOs to learn from one another and disseminate to a wider audience information on the role of working Equidae and the issues they face.     

Evaluation of factors associated with positive IgM capture ELISA results in equids with clinical signs compatible with West Nile virus infection: 1,017 cases (2003)

OBJECTIVE: To describe the prevalence of West Nile virus (WNV) infection and evaluate factors associated with positive IgM capture ELISA results in equids with clinical signs compatible with WNV infection. DESIGN: Retrospective case series. SAMPLE POPULATION: Laboratory submission forms from 1,104 equids tested for WNV in Colorado in 2003. PROCEDURES: Submission forms accompanying samples submitted for detection of WNV via IgM capture ELISA were obtained from the Colorado state veterinarian and diagnostic laboratories performing the tests. Data on signalment, clinical signs, history of vaccination against WNV, and assay results were collected from laboratory submission forms. Equids with clinical signs compatible with WNV infection in which IgM capture ELISA results were positive were considered as case equids. RESULTS: 1,104 equids were tested for WNV; 1,017 (92.1%) had clinical signs compatible with WNV infection. Among equids with clinical signs compatible with WNV infection, the odds of testing positive for WNV via IgM capture ELISA were lower in males and in vaccinated equids and higher in equids with moderate and severe illness, compared with females, unvaccinated equids, and equids with mild illness. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Among equids with clinical signs compatible with WNV infection, vaccination against WNV, severity of clinical signs, duration of illness, and region in Colorado were associated with increased risk of having a positive IgM capture ELISA result.     

Pharmacokinetics of flunixin meglumine in donkeys, mules, and horses

OBJECTIVE: To compare serum disposition of flunixin meglumine after i.v. administration of a bolus to horses, donkeys, and mules. ANIMALS: 3 clinically normal horses, 5 clinically normal donkeys, and 5 clinically normal mules. PROCEDURE: Blood samples were collected at time zero (before) and 5, 10, 15, 30, and 45 minutes, and at 1, 1.25, 1.5, 1.75, 2, 2.5, 2.75, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 5.5, 6, and 8 hours after i.v. administration of a bolus of flunixin meglumine (1.1 mg/kg of body weight). Serum was analyzed in duplicate by the use of high-performance liquid chromatography for determination of flunixin meglumine concentrations. The serum concentration-time curve for each horse, donkey, and mule were analyzed separately to estimate noncompartmental pharmacokinetic variables RESULTS: Mean (+/-SD) area under the curve for donkeys (646 +/- 148 minute x microg/ml) was significantly less than for horses (976 +/- 168 minute x microg/ml) or for mules (860 +/- 343 minute x microg/ml). Mean residence time for donkeys (54.6 +/- 7 minutes) was significantly less than for horses (110 +/- 24 minutes) or for mules (93 +/- 30 minutes). Mean total body clearance for donkeys (1.78 +/- 0.5 ml/kg/h) was significantly different from that for horses (1.14 +/- 0.18 ml/kg/h) but not from that for mules (1.4 +/- 0.5 ml/kg/h). Significant differences were not found between horses and mules for any pharmacokinetic variable. CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Significant differences exist with regard to serum disposition of flunixin meglumine in donkeys, compared with that for horses and mules. Consequently, flunixin meglumine dosing regimens used in horses may be inappropriate for use in donkeys.     

Prevalence and Chemotherapy of Parascaris equorum in Equines in Pakistan

The prevalence of Parascaris equorum in paddock horses, donkeys, and mules (n = 150 for each) of the Mona Remount Depot, Sargodha, Pakistan, was examined and the efficacy of two treatments, doramectin and garlic, measured on the basis of fecal egg counts. Parascaris equorum infection was found in 54 (36%) horses, 47 (31%) donkeys, and 42 (28%) mules. The final efficacy of treatment with doramectin was 92.5% in horses, 80.6% in donkeys, and 81.4% in mules, compared to 44.4%, 51,6%, and 37%, respectively, with garlic, making doramectin the more effective treatment.