Effect of Grain Protein Concentration on Falling Number of Ungerminated Soft White Winter Wheat

Falling number (FN) values below 300 sec in the apparent absence of preharvest sprouting are periodically observed in the U.S. Pacific Northwest (USPNW). Wheat in the USPNW is predominantly soft‐grained and often grown under conditions conducive to low grain protein concentration (GPC). Our hypothesis is that low GPC per se could be responsible for some low FN results and not elevated α‐amylase from either sprouting or late‐maturity amylase. The relationship between FN and GPC was investigated using grain from the 2011 wheat harvest. Soft white winter wheat samples from six locations in Oregon were tested in duplicate. Across the entire sample set, FN and GPC were positively correlated (r = 0.65, P ≤ 0.001). When putatively sprouted samples (FN < 280 sec) were removed from the analysis, the correlation was still apparent (r = 0.69, P ≤ 0.001). Hardness index was also correlated with FN (r = 0.45, P ≤ 0.001). Our preliminary conclusion is that GPC can be a substantial modulator of FN in the putative absence of elevated amylase in soft white winter wheat grown in the USPNW.     

气候生态因子对冬小麦穗粒数的影响

运用统计学原理和分析计算方法,较系统地分析了冬小麦主要发育阶段气象因子对小麦穗粒数的影响规律,建立了穗粒数的气候生态模型。拔节—抽穗期降水少、空气干燥是影响穗粒数的不利因素;抽穗后气温偏低、空气相对湿度为５８％、降水量为１０７．３ｍｍ时对增加穗粒数最为有利。     

Volatile Organic Compounds of Whole‐Grain Soft Winter Wheat

The aroma from volatile organic compounds (VOC) is an indicator of grain soundness and also an important quality attribute of grain foods. To identify the inherent VOC of wheat grain unaffected by fungal infestation and other extrinsic factors, grains of nine soft wheat varieties were collected at various days postanthesis (DPA) and analyzed for VOC. Ten VOC were detected in all nine varieties at all DPA. 3‐Methyl‐1‐butanol, 2‐methyl‐1‐butanol, 1‐pentanol, hexanal, and 1‐hexanol were the predominant VOC in concentration. The VOC concentration generally decreased as grain matured from 25 to 40 DPA. Hexanal and 1‐hexanol were the most abundant VOC in five and four varieties at 1.30–2.99 and 1.21–5.46 μg/kg of wheat grain, respectively, at 40 DPA. The VOC profiles of wheat grains infected with fungal diseases and stored for several months were uniquely different from that of sound grain.     

Effect of Steeping Conditions on Wet-Milling Characteristics of Hard Red Winter Wheat

A batch-wise small-scale wet-processing laboratory for whole wheat kernel has been designed and constructed to produce wheat starch and gluten from wheat grains. Hard red winter wheat kernels were steeped in three steeping media: SO₂ solution, lactic acid, and hydrochloric acid. Acid concentrations of 0.1, 0.3, and 0.5%, were used for SO₂ solutions and hydrochloric acid, and 0.1, 0.6, and 3.0% for lactic acid. After 16, 20, and 24 hr of steeping, the wheat was wet-milled. Yields and protein contents of wet-milling fractions were compared. Both high concentration of steeping media and long steeping time increased the starch yield and decreased the protein contents of the starch. However, the steeping time and acid concentration could be reduced from 24 to 20 hr and from 0.5 to 0.3%, respectively, without any statistically significant difference in starch yields or protein contents of the starch. Consistency and color of the starch were affected by both steeping time and acid concentrations of steeping media.     

Effect of Glyphosate Application on Hagberg Falling Number of Wheat

A study was conducted to investigate management of Hagberg Falling Number (HFN) by creating more homogenous wheat through glyphosate applications at soft and hard dough stages individually, without compromising wheat quality. The effect of the treatments varied over cultivars and seasons. Thousand kernel mass (2003/04), hectolitre mass (2003/04 and 2004/05), and protein content (2003/04 and 2004/05) were negatively affected by soft dough stage treatments for all three cultivars included in the study. Days to harvest and growing degree days were significantly reduced with the soft dough treatment. Yield and preharvest sprouting were not affected. α-Amylase activity varied over season, cultivar, and treatment. HFN measured for Tugela-DN treated at soft dough stage produced a significantly higher HFN compared with the control (2004/05). None of the other cultivars at the various treatments indicated any HFN response to glyphosate application. Germination was severely affected by soft dough stage glyphosate application in the first year of evaluation. Studies into the effect of the various treatments on the repeatability of the HFN test, indicated that glyphosate treatment managed to produce a certain amount of stability for two of the three cultivars, but the treatment that resulted in the stability varied between seasons.     

丘陵山区旱地暗沟贮水的试验研究

提出了一种丘陵山区旱地抗旱的新工程措施－－暗沟贮水。该措施具有保墒、蓄水、调节土壤湿度的功能，使作物明显增产。这一新工程措施在我国南方排球队山区具有推广价值。     

Quality Requirements of Soft Red Winter Wheat for Making Northern‐Style Chinese Steamed Bread

Flours of 19 soft red winter (SRW) wheat varieties having protein contents of 6.6–9.9% were used to determine the suitability of SRW wheat for making northern‐style Chinese steamed bread (CSB) and the influences of flour characteristics on the quality attributes of CSB. Fourteen varieties produced CSB of acceptable to good quality with a total score greater than 70. Both protein content and dough strength‐related parameters, including sodium dodecyl sulfate sedimentation (SDSS) volume, wet and dry gluten contents, and midline peak time (MPT), were significantly associated with the quality attributes of CSB. The rapid viscosity analyzer setback value exhibited significant negative correlations with specific volume, smoothness, crumb structure, and total score of CSB. Stepwise multiple regression analysis indicated that 89% of variability in total scores of CSB could be predicted from SDSS volume, wet gluten content, and MPT. Contributions of high‐molecular‐weight glutenin subunits 7*+8 and 5+10 to flour characteristics, specific volume, stress relaxation score, and total score of CSB were greater than those of their counterpart allelic variations. Absence of the 1B/1R translocation in SRW wheat varieties was desirable for the production of CSB.     

影响我国冬小麦产量的气象要素研究

收集整理了全国52个市、县冬小麦产量预报模型资料，总结提取出预报要素，通过定量分析，了解了影响各地区冬小麦产量的主要气象要素，为大面积冬小麦产量监测和预报提供了科学依据。     

Quality of Hard Red Winter Wheat Grown Under High Temperature Conditions During Maturation and Ripening

High temperature during grain filling has been identified as a major factor in the end-use properties of bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Our objectives were to assess the effect of high temperature during maturation on the grain characteristics, milling quality, and flour quality of hard red winter wheat. In three separate experiments, plants of wheat cultivar Karl 92 were subjected to regimes (day-night) of 20–20, 25–20, 30–20, and 35–20°C from 10 and 15 days after anthesis (DAA) until ripeness, and 25–20, 30–20, and 35–20°C from 20 DAA until ripeness. In other experiments, plants of wheat cultivars Karl 92 and TAM 107 were dried at 20 and 40°C, and spikes of Karl 92 were dried at different temperature and humidity conditions to asses the effects on quality of high temperature and drying rates during grain ripening. Flour yield correlated positively with kernel weight and diameter, test weight, and proportion of large kernels. Flour yield decreased as temperature increased and correlated negatively with hardness index and proportion of small grains. High growth temperatures and rapid grain desiccation decreased mixing time and tolerance of the flours. The greatest damage occurred when high temperature was maintained continuously from early grain filling until ripeness. Weakening of dough properties by rapid desiccation during ripening suggest that temperature, humidity, and possibly soil moisture all contribute to the final quality of bread wheat.     

Protein Structural Features in Winter Wheat: Benchmarking Diversity in Ontario Hard and Soft Winter Wheat

A set of 32 winter wheat lines and varieties was selected to benchmark Ontario winter wheat as a first step toward improving quality. Protein secondary structure, total and accessible thiols, rheological properties, gluten aggregation kinetics, and network forming capabilities of different polymers were determined for each wheat line. Results revealed that there were statistically significant differences among the lines selected (P < 0.05). The differences between hard and soft wheat classes were not as large as would be expected, however, despite the range of quality parameters measured. Benchmarks revealed that several soft wheat lines outperformed hard wheat lines in standard breadmaking quality measures. Protein conformation changed significantly as the moisture content of the samples increased to mimic different model product systems: flour, dough, and batter. The conformation of the flour samples exhibited different patterns between hard and soft wheat classes, although these differences became narrower in the dough and batter states. Principal component analysis (PCA) factors included most quality parameters measured, with the notable exceptions of solvent retention capacity tests and total thiols. Protein conformation and accessible thiols were significant PCA factors that tended to override the rheological measures of quality they represented, suggesting that protein secondary structure and disulfide bonding patterns are fundamental aspects of rheological quality measures.     

Segregating Hard Red Winter Wheat into Dough Factor Groups Using Single Kernel Measurements and Whole Grain Protein Analysis

In accordance with the Grain Quality Acts of 1986 and 1990, scientists at Kansas State University are studying the feasibility of implementing a quality-based marketing system for hard red winter (HRW) wheat in the Southern Plains. This research addresses the development of a segregation system that uses the single kernel characterization system and the whole grain near-infrared analyzer to evaluate the milling and baking quality of wheat as a single value called “dough factor”. This single value represents the amount of flour-water dough that can be produced from a given unit of wheat. Samples of HRW wheat (≈100 per location) were collected at five Kansas country elevators during the 1995 and 1996 harvests. After the dough factor was measured for individual samples, the samples were composited into seven dough factor groups to establish binning and segregation strategies and to explore the relationship between wheat quality measurements and dough factor groups. Results showed that dough factor groups were significantly different from each other and that dough factor groups were related (P < 0.05) to increases in test weight, single kernel weight, single kernel size, flour yield, and mixing time. Although locations showed year-to-year variability for test weight, kernel weight, and kernel size, the differences among dough factor groups for these characteristics across locations were consistent, indicating that the mean values within dough factor groups are similar regardless of location. The lack of significant differences in protein content among dough factor groups was attributable to high variability within dough factor groups between years. High protein values were present in low and high dough factor groups, indicating that protein content alone is not a good indicator of wheat quality. Patterns of differences in wheat quality characteristics among dough factor groups suggest that the seven groups studied can be reduced to three groups: <107, 107–112.9, ≥113. This study demonstrates that dough factor as a segregation and marketing tool is related to single kernel characteristics, differentiates wheats of varying quality, and reflects the end-use value of wheat.     

两地小麦籽粒蛋白质品质的特点表现

选取西藏主要小麦品种和内地优质小麦品种,分别在西藏和杨陵进行冬播和春播,收获后测定并分析其籽粒蛋白质及其组分。结果表明：不同来源品种蛋白质各组分含量均表现为北京品种＞西藏品种＞青海品种,其中北京品种和西藏品种间的差异较大,而西藏品种和青海品种间的差异较小,蛋白质各组分的变异大小为谷蛋白的变异最大,其次是醇溶蛋白、清蛋白、球蛋白及残余蛋白的变异较小,谷／醇比值在品种间的变异也较大;不同生态条件下各组分的变异的大小为醇溶蛋白＞谷蛋白＞残余蛋白＞球蛋白＞清蛋白,粗蛋白在4种生态条件下的变异系数为9.60%,谷／醇比值的变异系数为13.97%;谷蛋白、清蛋白、球蛋白及谷／醇比值在品种间的变异系数均大于在环境间的变异系数;而醇溶蛋白、残余蛋白及粗蛋白在环境间的变异系数大于在品种间的变异系数。     

Impact of a Reduced Wheat Meal Sample Size on the Falling Number Test

The impact of a smaller sample of whole meal wheat (5.5 or 6.0 g) to replace the official 7.0 g used in the Falling Number test was investigated using samples of Canada Western Amber Durum (CWAD) and Canada Western Red Spring (CWRS) wheat. Use of either of the smaller sample sizes resulted in a significant shortening of the analysis time of the test. Reproducibility studies, using high and low falling number (FN) CWRS and CWAD samples, with three analyses per day over six days indicated no appreciable change in the coefficient of variation for the test using a smaller sample size. The maximum daily standard deviation of three replicates, 25.7 sec, was observed using the official 7.0‐g moisture‐corrected CWAD sample and was not significantly different from the 23.0 sec value obtained for a 5.5‐g sample of CWRS. The maximum average standard deviations observed over the six days of analysis were 13.7, 7.7, and 5.3 sec for the 5.5‐, 6.0‐, and 7.0‐g sample sizes, respectively, and were all associated with the sound, high FN, CWRS sample. While the use of 5.5 g allowed significant differentiation between high and low FN CWRS samples, the ability to discriminate high and low FN CWAD samples was lost at this sample size. FN analysis of CWRS (n = 144) and CWAD (n = 141) at 7.0 vs. 6.0 g, yielded correlation coefficients of 0.95 and 0.88, respectively. Regression analysis indicated a ±14.1 sec error associated with estimating a 7.0‐g FN value using 6.0 g of CWRS which increased to 26.4 sec for CWAD. Particle size analyses of whole meal after grinding indicated that the harder CWAD wheat fractured into a significantly greater percentage of larger particles than the corresponding CWRS. This difference may be a contributing factor to the greater variance associated with the CWAD 6.0‐g test and the inability to differentiate sound and slightly sprouted wheat at 5.5 g. Use of the 6.0‐g method, stopping the test after 200 sec, would also be applicable for screening purposes at commercial facilities where normal testing times (350–450 sec) could be reduced to meet designated quality requirements. This would offer a savings of 2.5 min/sample over the conventional method.     

Nutritional Profile of Whole‐Grain Soft Wheat Flour

Whole‐grain wheat flour is used in baking to increase fiber content and to provide vitamins from the bran layers of the kernel. We surveyed whole‐grain soft flour samples from North America to determine the nutritional profile using recently revised fiber quantification protocols, Codex 2009.1. Standard compositional and vitamin analyses were also included in the survey. Three separate studies were included in the survey: sampling of commercial whole‐grain soft wheat flour, a controlled study of two cultivars across three years and two locations, and a regional study of soft white and soft red grain from commercial grain production. The Codex method for fiber measurement estimated total fiber concentration in the commercial sampling at 15.1 g/100 g, dry weight basis (dwb). In the controlled research trial, the largest source of variation in total fiber concentration was attributed to year effects, followed by genotype effects. For the two locations used in this study, location effects on fiber concentration were significant but an order of magnitude less important than the year and genotype effects. The third study of regional variation within North America found limited variation for total fiber, with the resistant oligosaccharide fraction having the greatest variation in concentration. When all three studies were combined into a meta‐analysis, the average total fiber concentration was 14.8 g/100 g dwb. In the meta‐analysis, concentrations of folate, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and pyridoxine were lower than in previous summary reports. Vitamin E and pantothenic acid were the exceptions, with concentrations that were nearly identical to previous standard reports. Several other recent studies also point to current cultivars and production systems as producing lower concentrations of the essential vitamins than previously reported. The results suggest that vitamin concentrations in diets of populations using grain‐based diets from modern cereal‐production systems may require review to determine if previous assumptions of vitamin consumption are accurate.     

Amyloplast Formation and Starch Granule Development in Hard Red Winter Wheat

Plastids in the coenocytic endosperm of young wheat caryopses were mostly in the form of pleomorphic proplastids with a few of the plastids containing small starch granules. Following cellularization of the coenocytic cytoplasm, the outer one or two endosperm cell layers became meristematic and continued to divide until about 14 days after flowering (DAF). During the first week of endosperm development, newly divided cells had plastids that were pleomorphic in shape, while subaleurone cells interior to the meristematic region contained amyloplasts that contained a single‐size class of starch granules (incipient A‐type starch granules). The pleomorphic plastids exhibited tubular protrusions that extended a considerable distance through the cytoplasm. Amyloplasts in cells interior to the meristematic region did not exhibit protrusions. Both subaleurone and central endosperm cells had amyloplasts that exhibited protrusions at 10–12 DAF, and some of the protrusions contained small starch granules (incipient B‐type starch granules). Protrusions were not observed in endosperm amyloplasts at 14 DAF. Two sizes of starch, large A‐type and smaller B‐type granules were present within the cells, however. Amyloplast protrusions were numerous again at 17 DAF in both subaleurone and central endosperm cells; at 21 DAF, a third size class of small C‐type starch granules was observed in the cytoplasm. Amyloplasts in the endosperm of wheat apparently divided and increased in number through protrusions because binary fission typical of plastid division was never observed. Protrusions were observed in the coenocytic cytoplasm, in dividing cells, in subaleurone and central endosperm cells at 10–12 DAF, and in subaleurone and central endosperm cells at 17 DAF. The results suggest that there are three sizes of starch granules produced at specific times during wheat endosperm development.     

肥力及施肥对冬小麦千粒重的影响

冬小麦生长发育后期 ,由于气候异常或干热风 ,使冬小麦高温逼熟千粒重大幅度下降 ,但较高的肥力水平及合理的施肥技术对稳定千粒重有十分明显的作用。实验结果表明 :土壤有机质含量高、增施钾肥、氮磷钾配施 ,后期补氮及后期喷施KH2 PO4 和叶面肥对于提高千粒重有着明显的作用     

Laboratory Milling Method for Whole Grain Soft Wheat Flour Evaluation

Whole grain wheat products are a growing portion of the foods marketed in North America, yet few standard methods exist to evaluate whole grain wheat flour. This study evaluated two flour milling systems to produce whole grain soft wheat flour for a wire‐cut cookie, a standard soft wheat product. A short‐flow experimental milling system combined with bran grinding in a Quadro Comil produced a whole grain soft wheat flour that made larger diameter wire‐cut cookies than whole grain flour from a long‐flow experimental milling system. Average cookie diameter of samples milled on the short‐flow mill was greater than samples milled on the long‐flow system by 1 cm/two cookies (standard error 0.09 cm). The long‐flow milling system resulted in more starch damage in the flour milling than did the short‐flow system. The short‐flow milling system produced flours that were useful for discriminating among wheat cultivars and is an accessible tool for evaluating whole grain soft wheat quality.     

地表臭氧胁迫对冬小麦籽粒品质的影响研究

为深入探讨地表臭氧（O3）对冬小麦品质的影响,采用开顶式气室（OTC）,设置3个处理组：CK（对照组）、CF100（O3浓度为100 nL·L-1）、CF150（O3浓度为150 nL·L-1）,通过大田试验和实验室分析,开展了O3浓度增加对冬小麦蛋白质及其组分、氨基酸及其组成、淀粉含量等营养品质和加工品质的影响研究。结果表明：①籽粒氨基酸总量依次为CF100〉CF150〉CK,而人体所需的必需氨基酸总量为CF150〉CF100〉CK,处理间均差异显著（P〈0.05）。②粗蛋白含量随O3浓度的升高而增加,但各组分间变化趋势不同：清蛋白、球蛋白的含量为CF150〉CF100〉CK,醇溶蛋白、谷蛋白的含量则为CF100〉CF150〉CK。③淀粉含量随着O3浓度的升高而降低,两者呈显著负相关（P〈0.05）,与CK相比,CF100、CF150冬小麦淀粉含量分别下降了4.06%和16.61％。可见,O3胁迫能促进籽粒营养品质和加工品质的合成。     

冬小麦根系生长规律及土壤环境条件对其影响的研究

通过两年田间实测取样和盆栽试验对冬小麦根系的生长发育与在土壤中的分布规律以及环境条件如肥、水、耕作措施对根系生长发育的影响进行了研究，并建立了根系生长及其在土壤上分布的数学模型。     

Winter Wheat Grain Yield and Grain Nitrogen as Influenced by Bed and Conventional Planting Systems

ABSTRACT

Bed planted wheat systems offer a new alternative for the traditional wheat producer to provide opportunities for crop rotation, more efficient use of water, and new techniques of nutrient management. This study was conducted to determine if planting winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in Oklahoma on raised beds can maintain grain yields while providing more options in the cropping system. Experiments were conducted at Hennessey and Lake Carl Blackwell, Oklahoma in 2000–2001 and 2001–2002 cropping seasons. The experiments consisted of a factorial combination of two planting systems (bed and conventional), four winter wheat varieties (‘Custer’, Jaggar', ‘Intrada’ and ‘2174’), and three nitrogen (N) rates (0, 67, and 134 kg ha^{? 1}). The experimental design was a randomized complete block with three replications. Grain yield was not statistically different between the bed and conventional planting systems for three of four site years. However, there was a trend for the conventional wheat production system to have an advantage in grain yield over the bed planting system due to difference in row configuration. For the bed system to be useful in Oklahoma, the current conventional tillage practice must be changed to reduced tillage to make use of bed plating system for conserving moisture. Also suitable planting configuration that minimizes intra-specific competition due to over-population must be addressed. Grain yield response to N rate was greater in the conventionally planted wheat versus the bed planted system.