Collembola diversity in the critically endangered Cape Flats Sand Fynbos and adjacent pine plantations

The replacement of indigenous vegetation by commercial alien plantations can strongly affect invertebrate species richness and composition. This has been demonstrated for some invertebrate taxa in the Fynbos vegetation of the Western Cape, but the response of litter-dwelling Collembola has not been documented. Here we compared the richness and abundance of litter-dwelling Collembola assemblages in Pinus radiata plantations and in adjacent rehabilitated Cape Flats Sand Fynbos (CFSF) in the Tokai Forest Reserve, Western Cape, South Africa. A total of 48 Collembola morphospecies was identified, of which 14 species were recorded exclusively from the pine plantations, and six exclusively from the CFSF. Abundance and morphospecies richness was higher in the pine plantations than in the CFSF, with 34 morphospecies found in the CFSF, and 42 morphospecies in the pine plantations. Fourteen species were likely invasive taxa, of which eight were found in CFSF, and 13 in the pine plantations. Multivariate analyses indicated significant differences in the assemblages of the two habitat types based on abundance, but using presence–absence data only, no difference was found. Significant relationships were found between springtail richness and abundance and site humidity, which differed between the CFSF (drier) and pine plantation (moister), likely accounting for the differences in richness and abundance among habitat types.     

The confounding influence of homogenising invasive species in a globally endangered and largely urban biome: Does habitat quality dominate avian biodiversity?

There are many variables within an urban landscape that can be expected to influence faunal diversity. We used a mechanistic approach to observe the relative importance of each of these variables in describing the diversity of avian communities in urban and peri-urban areas of Cape Town, South Africa situated within Cape Floristic Region, a global plant biodiversity hotspot. We expected to find a strong influence of habitat amount and arrangement across a fragmented urban-rural gradient. Birds were sampled in patches of fragmented Cape Flats Sand Fynbos at 39 locations during the middle of summer (November-January 2008/2009). Environmental data included on-site observations, existing GIS layers, and remotely sensed data. Bird community composition was related to habitat amount, arrangement, and quality. Correlations, partial correlations and structural equation analysis showed that habitat amount and arrangement had insignificant effects on species richness across the urban gradient. Changes in urban density and the presence or absence of the invasive alien tree species Acacia saligna (blue wattle) appeared to be the main drivers of avian species richness. Increasing urban density, decreasing A. saligna density and decreasing canopy height correlated with higher avian species richness, with confounding variables corrected for. For the management of urban biodiversity, our results suggest that the most urgent focus should be on retaining the quality remaining areas of native vegetation (and particularly, containing the spread of A. salgina) rather than extending current networks with poor quality habitat. More generally, habitat quality appears to be more important than habitat amount or arrangement in this system. We suggest that this observation be encorporated into further research to more effectively predict avian responses to landscape change and that more must be done to adequately capture the critical and complex role of the matrix in terrestrial systems.     

The effects of extreme forest fragmentation on the bird community of Singapore Island

Singapore Island suffered one of the highest known deforestation rates in the tropics from the mid-to-late 19th century when over 95% of its native lowland forest was cleared. We compared the current bird community structure and composition among three habitat types, i.e., old (>50 years, 7-935 ha) and young (?50 years, 29-49 ha) naturally regenerating secondary forests and abandoned wooded plantations (27-102 ha) dominated by exotic species. Forest patch area had the strongest influence on the current species richness. The overall bird richness was not greater in most mature forest patches, but 20 species were only found in the old secondary forests and five of these were found in <50% of these patches. The rapid decrease in the number of forest species in plantations was offset by an increase in the number of open habitat species. Comparisons with current bird communities in nearby mainland forest sites (Peninsular Malaysia) suggest that the forest avifauna of Singapore is depauperate. The preservation of larger mature and maturing forests is therefore required for conserving the extant forest avifauna in Singapore. Connecting isolated patches can also be envisioned to facilitate movements of forest birds that have low densities and restricted distribution.     

Rapid avifaunal collapse along the Amazonian deforestation frontier

The combined effects of rapid habitat loss, fragmentation and disturbance on tropical forest avifaunas have not been examined to date. The southern Amazonian ‘arc of deforestation’ marks the boundary of the most aggressive agricultural frontier in tropical forests worldwide. We sampled 21 disturbed and undisturbed primary forest patches, ranging in size from 1.2 to 14,476 ha, to elucidate the synergistic effects of both forest disturbance and fragmentation on bird community structure, and pinpoint which species were the “winners” and “losers” from this process. A number of forest patch metrics, derived from an independent remote sensing approach, explained much of the resulting presence/absence matrix. The bird community exhibited a highly nested structure, with small patches being most dissimilar from one another. Bird species differed in their response to both forest patch size and forest canopy perforation according to their dependence on closed-canopy primary forest. Forest patch geometry, which clearly modulated the shape of species-area relationships accounted for 83-96% of the variation in species richness, but forest habitat quality resulting from logging and surface-fire disturbance was also a significant predictor of species richness for the most forest-dependent taxa.     

Towards an ecologically-sustainable forestry in the Atlantic Forest

Since pristine Atlantic Forest remnants are vanishing, and biological reserves are in short, conservation of biodiversity will largely depend on proper management of the anthropogenic matrix. Here, we test (1) the effectiveness of ecologically-managed tree monocultures in maintaining Araucaria Forest biodiversity, (2) how this effectiveness change among taxa, and (3) we discuss management principles that can be used by the forestry industry in order to contribute positively to biodiversity conservation. The study was conducted in the São Francisco de Paula National Forest, southern Brazil, an environmental mosaic composed mostly of patches of Araucaria Forest and ecologically-managed monocultures of Araucaria, Pinus and Eucalyptus. Using standardized sampling methods in these four main habitats, we have recorded the richness and species composition of small mammals, birds, leaf-litter frogs, butterflies, galling insects, spiders, opiliones, flatworms, woody plants, epiphytic angiosperms, epiphytic ferns, lichens, and fruit-body producing fungi. Overall, we recorded 506 species in Araucaria Forest, 181 (36%) of which were exclusive of this habitat while 325 (64%) could be found in at least one monoculture. Distribution patterns of species richness and number of records across taxonomic groups showed that a large biodiversity can be found inside ecologically-managed plantations of Araucaria, Pinus, and Eucalyptus. For all studied taxa, except for epiphytic angiosperms and fruit-body producing fungi, more than half of the Araucaria Forest species could be found living on monocultures. We discuss how the actual management practices of the forest industry can be improved to contribute positively to the conservation of the Atlantic Forest biodiversity.     

A river runs through it: Land-use and the composition of vegetation along a riparian corridor in the Cape Floristic Region, South Africa

Riparian zones are important for the many ecosystem services they supply. In settled areas, the vegetation of such zones is shaped by human land-use; this often creates conditions under which alien plant species thrive. Alien plants have been shown to induce large-scale changes in riparian habitats, and they pose a major threat to the continued provision of key ecosystem services. We used direct gradient analysis to assess correlations between land-use and the composition of vegetation along a riparian river corridor in the highly transformed landscape surrounding Stellenbosch in South Africa’s Western Cape Province. Vegetation plots were sampled along the entire length of the river from headwaters to estuary (ca. 40 km). Plant community composition was analyzed in relation to land-use data collected in the field, and additional land-use variables computed from digital land-cover data. Patterns of plant community structure were found to be directly related to land-use, with measures of cover, richness, and diversity differing significantly among land-use types. Portions of the riparian zone adjacent to agricultural land had the greatest level of alien plant cover, while areas bordered by urban land maintained the highest alien species richness. Areas adjacent to grazing and natural lands showed intermediate and low levels of invasion, respectively. Several native species were found to persist in areas with high abundance and diversity of invasive alien plants, suggesting that they will be valuable focal species for future restoration attempts. Due to the level of human-mediated change in many areas of the riparian zone, restoration to historic conditions over most of the river is not considered feasible. These areas should be recognized as examples of novel ecosystems, and management efforts should focus on restoring or creating desirable ecosystem functions, rather than on achieving assemblages comprising only native species.     

Plantation rows as dispersal routes: A test with didelphid marsupials in the Atlantic Forest, Brazil

Anecdotal observations suggest that some vertebrates follow plantation rows when crossing between habitat patches in fragmented landscapes, but the frequency of such behavior was never formally tested despite its potential implications for landscape management. We experimentally tested if the didelphid marsupials Didelphis aurita and Philander frenatus use plantation rows as guidelines when searching for habitat patches in a landscape of fragmented Atlantic Forest in Brazil. Thirty-seven individuals of P. frenatus and 24 of D. aurita were captured in forest fragments and released carrying spool-and-line tracking devices at four distances (30-200 m) from a forest fragment, in a matrix of manioc plantations. Animals of both species used plantation rows to orient their initial movements and used rows as guidelines along their paths for navigating in the matrix. By moving predominantly parallel to the plantation rows animals reduced the tortuosity of their paths and obtained an unobstructed view of the landscape ahead. These results demonstrate that the orientation of linear plantations can strongly influence functional connectivity between habitat fragments. Plantation rows should be oriented to maximize connection between nearby fragments, enhancing dispersal success of these species and probably many other terrestrial vertebrates in agricultural landscapes.     

Nestedness of bird assemblages in fragmented Afromontane forest: the effect of plantation forestry in the matrix

Bird species composition (61 species) of Afromontane forest fragments (n = 19) embedded in a natural grassland matrix or a plantation forestry matrix were compared. Forest bird assemblages in a natural grassland matrix displayed a nested non-random species distribution. Species loss was significantly area-dependent and predictable. Assemblages in the plantation-dominated matrix were also nested but were neither area- nor isolation-dependent and these potential processes had equal influence over bird species composition. Forests patches <50 ha in plantation were more species rich than those in a grassland matrix and visa versa for patches >50 ha. The effect of the matrix is revealed here with arboreal plantation cover promoting dispersal across the landscape, favouring abundant generalist bird species in smaller patches than expected in the plantation matrix, and the loss of some specialists and species living at low densities from large (>50 ha) patches. Because of a significant species-area relationship and possible area-dependent extinction, the largest forest patch in the nested series in a grassland matrix protects most bird species (89%). However, in a plantation matrix the absence of a species-area relationship requires the combination of many larger forest patches to protect most bird species. Plantation forests in the matrix significantly alter forest bird assemblage structure and composition. To avoid the effects of insularisation and to maintain the viability of bird communities in Afromontane forests requires conservation of the larger forests in a natural matrix. However, for forests in a plantation matrix, the management of dispersal processes by manipulation of the matrix may be as important to conserving species and communities as is minimising extinctions. Avoiding placing plantations near large forests, increasing the size of small patches, and where afforestation is unavoidable, placing plantations in the vicinity of small rather than large forest patches, are preferable management practices.     

The value of primary, secondary and plantation forests for Amazonian birds

Secondary forests and exotic tree plantations are rapidly expanding across tropical landscapes, yet we currently have a very poor understanding of the value of these human-dominated forest landscapes for biodiversity conservation. Mist netting, point counts and transect walks were used to compare the bird communities of these habitats and neighboring primary forest in north-east Brazilian Amazonia. The extensive spatial scale of plantations and second-growth in our study area enabled us to implement a robust replicated design, with survey plots approximately two to three orders of magnitude larger than most previous studies of land-use change in the tropics, thus minimising the influence of the surrounding landscape. Species richness was highest in primary forest and lowest in Eucalyptus plantations, and community turnover between habitats was very high whether based upon matrices of relative abundance or species presence-absence data, and for both point count and mist net data. Monthly line-transect censuses conducted over an annual cycle showed an increase in the detection of canopy frugivores and seed predators during the peak of flower and fruit availability in primary forest, but failed to suggest that second-growth or Eucalyptus stands provide suitable foraging habitat at any time of the year. The conservation value of both secondary forest and plantations was low compared to conclusions from previous studies. Our results indicate that while large-scale reforestation of degraded land can increase regional levels of diversity, it is unlikely to conserve most primary forest species, such as understorey insectivores and canopy frugivores.     

Local and landscape factors determine functional bird diversity in Indonesian cacao agroforestry

Large-scale intensification of smallholder cacao management is currently affecting the agroforestry landscapes of Sulawesi (Indonesia), the world’s third largest cacao producer. Little is known about how this shift from diverse plantations to full-sun cacao will affect functionally important biodiversity within the agroecosystem, and how this is related to landscape-wide patterns in land-use and natural ecosystems. We recorded birds in 43 cacao plots differing in woody and herbaceous vegetation as well as distance to forest in two valleys around the Lore Lindu National Park in Central Sulawesi. Species richness of frugivores and nectarivores decreased with increasing distance to forest, whereas granivorous birds increased in richness. Forest specialists, but not habitat generalists, responded positively to forest edge proximity. Species richness of all functional groups except seed eaters increased at higher density of tall shade trees. Greater species richness of shade trees was associated with higher species richness of frugivores and nectarivores, while herbaceous vegetation did not have a strong impact on the avifauna. The positive effect of shade trees was independent of distance to forest. In conclusion, our study shows the relative importance of local and landscape effects on bird diversity with shade trees being critical for bird conservation in cacao agroforestry landscapes.     

Avian assemblages along a gradient of urbanization in a highly fragmented landscape

Our goal was to evaluate how avian assemblages varied along a gradient of urbanization in the highly fragmented landscape of coastal southern California. We measured species richness and abundance of birds within continuous blocks of habitat, within urban habitat fragments that varied in landscape and local habitat variables, and within the urban matrix at different distances from the wildland interface. These comparisons allowed us to characterize patterns of avifaunal response to a gradient of urban fragmentation. At the fragment scale, we found that fragment area was a strong, positive predictor of the total number of breeding species detected per fragment; total bird abundance per point count also increased with fragment size. Tree cover was higher in small fragments, as was the abundance of birds that typically occupy wooded habitats. Comparisons between core, fragment, and urban transects revealed differing patterns of response of individual bird species to urbanization. In unfragmented habitat, we recorded a relatively high diversity of urbanization-sensitive birds. In urban transects, these species were rare, and a relatively few species of non-native and anthropophilic birds were common. These urbanization-enhanced birds were also recorded in previous urban gradient studies in northern California and Ohio. Bird communities along the urban gradient reached their highest richness and abundance in fragments. The marked difference in vegetation structure between urban and natural landscapes in this arid shrubland system likely contributed to this pattern; the presence of native shrubs and exotic trees in fragments enabled both shrub and arboreal nesters to co-occur. As is characteristic of biotic homogenization, urban fragmentation in coastal southern California may increase local diversity but decrease overall regional avifaunal diversity.     

Does time or habitat make old-growth forests species rich? Bryophyte richness in boreal Picea mariana forests

The relative importance of time since disturbance and habitat variables in creating diversity in old-growth forests will influence conservation strategies. However, the independent roles of these factors are not well understood, as they are rarely examined independently. This study examines the respective roles of habitat variables and time (stand age) in determining bryophyte diversity in Picea mariana (Mill. (BSP)) forests. Bryophytes are frequently used as indicators of old-growth forest, but their true dependence on forest continuity is unknown. Bryophytes were classified into taxonomic-habitat guilds: true mosses (forest), forest liverworts, bog liverworts and sphagna (bog). Diversity increased with age and peaked at approximately 275 years since fire, driven by liverworts. Multiplicative habitat modeling indicated that time and habitat played different roles for the different taxonomic-habitat guilds. True mosses and forest liverworts were primarily influenced by habitat variables, while sphagna and bog liverworts were influenced by time and habitat variables. The models for sphagna were particularly strong, indicating that many important factors were included, while forest liverwort models were particularly weak. This unexplained variability may represent site specific random factors, such as secondary disturbances that create habitat in a fully occupied space. Overall, high richness was created by small species dependent on habitat variables and chance factors for establishment. Therefore, time since disturbance was not the primary factor limiting richness in these forests. These results suggest that in boreal North America, where forest fragmentation is limited and recent, conservation strategies that emphasize habitat variables rather than forest continuity may be effective for some bryophytes.     

Riparian scrub recovery after clearing of invasive alien trees in headwater streams of the Western Cape, South Africa

Headwater rivers are the predominant kind of aquatic ecosystem in South Africa’s Cape Floristic Region. Invasion by alien woody taxa (especially Acacia longifolia and Acacia mearnsii) have altered these rivers in recent decades, replacing indigenous vegetation and altering ecosystem functioning. Aliens have been systematically cleared in watercourses since 1995 as part of a national program (“Working for Water”) to increase water production and improve water quality. Cleared sites are mostly left to recover to their pre-invasion state without additional intervention. We compared the vegetation of seven rivers that vary in their extent of invasion and clearing to identify factors limiting recolonization. Dense invasions cleared 3-6 years before the survey differ in vegetation structure and composition from uninvaded or lightly invaded/cleared riparian reaches in the following ways: (1) diminished extent of indigenous trees in the canopy and increased importance of shrubs or reinvading alien trees, (2) reduced species richness, (3) reduced likelihood of occupancy for more than one-third of common, indigenous species, and (4) reduced incidence of indigenous tree regeneration. Overall, indigenous tree regeneration is very low and not disturbance-triggered which will likely result in slow recovery without additional intervention. We recommend focusing active revegetation on common riparian scrub trees (i.e., Metrosideros angustifolia, Brachylaena neriifolia, Brabejum stellatifolium, and Erica caffra). These species tolerate open habitats favored by alien trees, eventually forming closed canopies required by shade-tolerant species. Accelerating establishment of these small trees is likely critical for shifting cleared riparian corridors from a state that favors alien reinvasion. Effective establishment strategies will need to be developed in the context of hydrologic impairment, since alien-invaded rivers in this region typically have reduced flow.     

Impact of forest drainage on the macroinvertebrates of a small boreal headwater stream: Do buffer zones protect lotic biodiversity?

Forest drainage, utilizing protective buffer zones, caused clear changes in the habitat structure as well as in the species richness and composition of moss-dwelling invertebrates in a small headwater stream. The aquatic moss Fontinalis dalecarlica was the dominant habitat in the control riffle areas, whereas sand dominated the riffles impacted by forest ditches. The significance of the forest ditches as a source of inorganic material was studied by comparing the quality of both indigenous and transplanted moss habitats. The Fontinalis tufts in the affected sites were silted up and contained a significantly higher average amount of inorganic matter than the mosses in the control site. The species richness of invertebrates within the silted mosses was significantly lower than at the control site. Shredder-feeding stoneflies dominated the moss communities of the control site, whereas Simuliidae dominated the impacted riffles. We suggest that the drainage-induced impoverishment of the benthic communities is due to two combined disturbance factors: (1) deposition of the particles on benthic habitats and (2) particle movement along the surfaces. Further, it is concluded that the present buffer zones and sedimentation ponds are insufficient to protect the biodiversity of streams draining easily eroding lands. In order to protect these vulnerable lotic ecosystems effectively, the most erodible parts of the catchment area should be undrained, and more retentive buffer mechanisms should be utilized in the drainage areas.     

Large-scale correlates of alien plant invasion in Catalonia (NE of Spain)

Identification of the main correlates of the invasion process is a fundamental step in alien species management at the regional scale. This paper explores the main climatic, territorial, and anthropic correlates of alien plant species richness and percentage in Catalonia (NE of Spain), by means of GIS techniques. We used floristic data collected in FLORACAT per UTM 10 km × 10 km to set up the number and the percentage of alien species. The association of these variables with climate, topography, landscape, human settlement, and geographic position was explored by means of stepwise regression models applied on the axes obtained from principal component analysis. The significance of the resulting correlates was tested using the modified t test of Dutilleul to remove the effects of spatial autocorrelation. PCA reduced the 22 variables to 12 principal components (PC) that explained 90% of the cumulative variance. Regression models were highly significant and captured a high proportion of total variance (adjusted r² = 0.70 for alien species richness and r² = 0.56 for alien species percentage). Both alien species richness and percentage were mainly correlated to PC summarising variables concerning climate, habitat and landscape heterogeneity, and potential anthropogenic disturbance. However, while these PC exhibited similar weights on alien species richness, species percentage was mainly determined by climate. Implications for conservation are discussed considering a future scenario of climate warming and increasing land use change in Mediterranean areas.     

Effects of anthropogenic land use on forest birds and butterflies in Subic Bay, Philippines

Despite the loss of 83% of native forests in the Philippines, little is known on the effects of this massive habitat loss and degradation on its forest biotas. This is a cause for concern because of the threat posed to the country’s large number of endemic taxa. To investigate the impacts of anthropogenic disturbance, forest birds and butterflies were surveyed in closed and open canopy forests, as well as suburban, rural and urban areas within the Subic Bay Watershed Reserve and Olongapo City in western Luzon. Measures of forest species richness and population densities for both taxa were similar in the two forest types, but showed different patterns in the other habitats. Indirect gradient analysis showed that forest bird species were positively correlated with vegetation variables (i.e., canopy cover, tree density, height to inversion and ground cover), while forest butterflies were not strongly correlated to any of the measured habitat variables. Community composition of birds in forests was distinct from those in modified habitats, while butterfly communities were more similar. A simulation showed that canopy cover of 60% or higher was required by 24 of the 26 bird species that were sensitive to canopy loss. Endemicity and nesting strata were the significant predictors of vulnerability to habitat disturbance for birds, while endemicity and larval hostplant specificity were significant for butterflies. Both taxa were negatively affected by anthropogenic disturbance but may respond to different components in the habitat (i.e., structure and resources), and thus cannot be used as surrogates of each other. Conservation of forests with contiguous canopy cover should be prioritized, and more ecological research is needed to improve the knowledge on the effects of disturbance on Philippine biodiversity.     

Effects of habitat disturbance on mixed species bird flocks in a tropical sub-montane rainforest

Despite their vulnerability to forest disturbances in the Neotropics, the consequences of forest perturbation on mixed species flocks are poorly understood in the threatened Southeast Asian rainforests. We examined the effects of local-scale habitat disturbance on mixed species flocks along an escalating gradient of anthropogenic modification (i.e., forest interior, forest edge, and urban) in a sub-montane tropical rainforest in Peninsular Malaysia that is presently experiencing low intensity development. Mixed species flocks in the forest interior and forest edge habitats (9.3 ± 2.3 and 8.4 ± 2.3, respectively) had significantly higher number of species than those observed in the urban habitat (5.1 ± 1.7). Flock participation was influenced by environmental characteristics (e.g., canopy cover). Flocking species sensitive to habitat disturbance were likely to be from the Families Corvidae, Nectariniidae, and Sylviidae; had narrow to restricted altitudinal ranges; and were exclusively dependent on primary forest and understory microhabitats. We conclude that sub-montane mixed species flocks are affected by even small scale urbanization and that they, particularly with species richness as a parameter, can be used as effective ecological indicators. With the looming development pressure on the sub-montane/montane habitats in Peninsular Malaysia and the Southeast Asian region, urgent conservation actions are needed for the preservation of their biotas.     

Habitat preferences of the larger mammals in the Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary,Kerala, India

The habitat preferences of large and medium-sized mammals in the Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary were studied. Twenty-four species were recorded. Most prefer to live in specific forest types. In the case of primates, Macaca radiata was more abundant in forest plantations and in deciduous forests. Macaca silenus was cinfined to the evergreen forests alone. Presbytis entellus was more numerous in deciduous forests. Presbytis johni was more or less evenly distributed between the west coast tropical evergreen and moist deciduous forests. Herbivores and carnivores were most abundant in grasslands and in the Tectona grandis plantations.     

Impacts of land use, anthropogenic disturbance, and harvesting on an African medicinal liana

African medicinal plant species are increasingly threatened by overexploitation and habitat loss, but little is known about the conservation status and ecology of many medicinal species. Mondia whitei (Apocynaceae, formerly Asclepiadaceae), a medicinal liana found in Sub-Saharan Africa, has been subject to intensive harvesting and habitat loss. We surveyed M. whitei in Kakamega Forest, the largest of three remnant Kenyan forests known to contain the species. In 174 100 m² plots, we quantified the status of M. whitei and investigated its relationships with land use, disturbance and harvesting. With average adult densities of 101 plants/ha, M. whitei is not locally rare in Kakamega. However, the absence of flowers and fruits, together with a spatial disconnect between adults and juveniles, suggests that sexual regeneration is patchy or infrequent. Comparing among habitat types, we found that plants were most abundant in regenerating indigenous forest managed by the Forest Department, which permits some extractive uses. Conversely, plants were largest in indigenous forest managed by the Kenya Wildlife Service, which prohibits extractive uses. Most anthropogenic disturbances were not associated with M. whitei, but plant occurrence and density were higher along paths used by livestock than along other types of paths. Larger individuals appeared to be preferentially harvested, but adult plants were more likely to occur in harvested plots than un-harvested plots. This work emphasizes that restrictions on disturbance and extractive use do not automatically promote medicinal plant conservation. Moreover, harvesting may have important genetic and demographic consequences that are overlooked by studies focused on numerical losses.     

Comparing static versus dynamic protected areas in the Québec boreal forest

Conservation planning is often based on static mapping of species’ ranges or habitat distributions. Succession and disturbance alter, however, habitat quality and quantity through time especially under global climate and land use change scenarios; hence, static protected areas may not ensure habitat persistence and species survival. Here, we examined the relative merits of static and dynamic (floating) protected areas for the conservation of American marten (Martes americana) habitat in a dynamic boreal forest of Québec (Canada). Forest dynamics were modeled using a spatially-explicit landscape disturbance model and protected areas were selected based on the quality and compactness of marten home ranges using MARXAN. Static protected areas were fixed in space during 200 year simulations of boreal forest dynamics, while dynamic protected areas were re-located every 50 years to track dynamic habitat. Dynamic protected areas supported more high quality home ranges through time than static protected areas. The locations of dynamic protected areas were constrained, however, by the highly fragmented forest patterns created through logging and fire in unprotected areas. Our findings emphasize the often-overlooked point that if dynamic conservation planning is to be successful in the long term, the landscape matrix quality surrounding protected areas must be managed in such a way that options remain when it comes to re-planning.