Predictive modelling and ground validation of the spatial distribution of the New Zealand long-tailed bat (Chalinolobus tuberculatus)

The use of predictive models is continually increasing, but few models are subsequently field-checked and evaluated. This study evaluates the statistical strength and usefulness for conservation purposes of a predictive habitat use model developed for Chalinolobus tuberculatus, a threatened microchiropteran bat species found in the temperate rainforests of New Zealand. The relationship between various environmental variables and the presence/absence of the species was investigated using generalised linear modelling. The model developed was coupled with GIS data to develop maps of predicted occurrence within the West Coast region of New Zealand’s South Island. It was found that distance to forest boundary, slope, presence of Nothofagus, general land cover, variability in mean annual solar radiation, and mean ambient winter minimum temperature were significantly associated with the occurrence of the species. Evaluation of the statistical strength of the distribution model with independent data of species’ occurrence collected at 152 sites found that the C. tuberculatus model showed a moderate ability to predict both species presence and absence (τ(b) coefficient = 0.37). The field detection rate (0.45) using this model was significantly higher than that of historical surveys (0.12). The value of the species habitat model and the need to evaluate its utility in the development of conservation strategies is discussed.     

Using ecological niche modelling to infer past, present and future environmental suitability for Leiopelma hochstetteri, an endangered New Zealand native frog

Leiopelma hochstetteri is an endangered New Zealand frog now confined to isolated populations scattered across the North Island. A better understanding of its past, current and predicted future environmental suitability will contribute to its conservation which is in jeopardy due to human activities, feral predators, disease and climate change. Here we use ecological niche modelling with all known occurrence data (N = 1708) and six determinant environmental variables to elucidate current, pre-human and future environmental suitability of this species. Comparison among independent runs, subfossil records and a clamping method allow validation of models. Many areas identified as currently suitable do not host any known populations. This apparent discrepancy could be explained by several non exclusive hypotheses: the areas have not been adequately surveyed and undiscovered populations still remain, the model is over simplistic; the species’ sensitivity to fragmentation and small population size; biotic interactions; historical events. An additional outcome is that apparently suitable, but frog-less areas could be targeted for future translocations. Surprisingly, pre-human conditions do not differ markedly highlighting the possibility that the range of the species was broadly fragmented before human arrival. Nevertheless, some populations, particularly on the west of the North Island may have disappeared as a result of human mediated habitat modification. Future conditions are marked with higher temperatures, which are predicted to be favourable to the species. However, such virtual gain in suitable range will probably not benefit the species given the highly fragmented nature of existing habitat and the low dispersal ability of this species.     

Modeling species’ geographic distributions for preliminary conservation assessments: an implementation with the spiny pocket mice (Heteromys) of Ecuador

GIS-based modeling of a species’ environmental requirements using known occurrence records can provide estimates of its distribution for conservation assessments when other data are lacking. We used collection records, environmental variables, maps of land cover and protected areas, and the Genetic Algorithm for Rule-Set Prediction (GARP) to estimate the historical, current, and protected ranges of the spiny pocket mice present in Ecuador (Heteromys australis and H. teleus). The results suggest that ca. 52-63% of the distributional areas of H. australis in the country are intact, but suitable habitat in protected areas represents only approximately 11-13% of the species’ historical range there. The distribution of H. teleus has been much more reduced, with only ca. 13-19% of its historical distribution still forested and an estimated 2-3% intact and falling in protected areas. Our work highlights critical areas for future fieldwork and demonstrates an integrated approach to estimating a species’ current distribution for preliminary conservation assessments.     

Hybridization mechanisms between the endangered marble trout (Salmo marmoratus) and the brown trout (Salmo trutta) as revealed by in-stream experiments

Populations of the marble trout (Salmo marmoratus) are critically declining due to introgression by brown trout (S. trutta) strains. Hybrids between the two forms are fertile and presently predominant in most rivers of the species’ range.The involved hybridization mechanisms have been studied through two large scale in-stream experiments (Driselpoh and Stopnikarca) as 50% of each species have been stocked at the age of one year in fishless streams, each fish being individually marked. Diagnostic molecular markers were applied to test a partial reproductive isolation between the two species. Emphasis was put on survival and growth patterns of stocked fish (parental generation) as well as on fish hatched within the stream (F₁ generation).No evidence of a partial reproductive barrier between the two species was observed. Survival of the parental generation depended on the year in both streams, as well as on the species in Stopnikarca, but was identical for both species in Driselpoh. In both streams survival of instream hatched individuals measured from 0+ to 2+ was lower for brown trout. In Driselpoh, F₁ 0+, 1+ and 2+ hybrids were larger than pure individuals. Larger hybrids were only observed in Stopnikarca when analyses focused on individuals in inter-specific competition suggesting that heterosis and stress effects may explain the observed size differences.Our results point out important ecological differences between marble and brown trout and have shown that hybridization can easily take place. The findings indicate that high F₁ hybrid presence, survival and heterosis effects may impede marble trout rehabilitation in the area.     

Distribution, status, and conservation of radiated tortoises (Geochelone radiata) in Madagascar

The radiated tortoise, Geochelone radiata, one of Madagascar’s four endemic tortoises, occupies a narrow band of xeric spiny forest along the island’s southwest coast. Traditionally avoided by indigenous tribes, these tortoises are now routinely harvested for food. An accurate assessment of human exploitation remains problematic, however, hindered by limited, dated statistics available on tortoise populations. To update the radiated tortoise’s status and distribution, we established a series of line transects at seven localities across its range and implemented a mark-recapture study at one of these localities (Cap Sainte Marie). Tortoises currently range from south of Tulear to east of Cap Sainte Marie, at density estimates spanning 27-5744 tortoises/km². The mark-recapture estimate for Cap Sainte Marie (1905-2105 tortoises/km²) was substantially higher than its transect estimate (654 tortoises/km²) though comparable to actual tortoise captures (1438) there. Thus, our transect density values probably err as underestimates, and from these data, we calculate a conservative total population size of 12 million radiated tortoises. We also examined mitochondrial DNA sequences (ND4 gene) for two individuals/locality in a preliminary assessment of genetic variation across the species’ range. Only two ND4 haplotypes were recovered, the more common haplotype representing 13 of the 14 individuals. We offer several conservation recommendations in light of our survey results.     

Effects of Medicago sativa, Taraxacum officinale and Bromus sterilis on the density and diversity of Collembola in grassy arable fallows of different ages

The density and diversity of Collembola of nine grassy arable fallows of different ages were investigated in a factorial design with the factors ‘plant species’ (legume: Medicago sativa, herb: Taraxacum officinale, grass: Bromus sterilis) and ‘age class’ (2-3, 6-8 and 12-15 years) including the random effect ‘site’ (1-9). In May 2008, four plots were selected randomly at each fallow. Within each plot five M. sativa, T. officinale and B. sterilis plants were extracted with their associated soil using steel cylinders. The material from each plant species was used for extraction of Collembola and for determination of environmental parameters. Thus, the new aspect of the present study compared to other field studies investigating the relationships between plant and Collembolan communities is the focus on the “micro-scale”, investigating the Collembolan communities of the soil associated with single plants.We found that species richness and density of total and euedaphic Collembola were significantly higher in B. sterilis than in T. officinale samples with the M. sativa samples being intermediate. Fine-root feeding euedaphic Collembola particularly benefited from the higher amount of fine roots in B. sterilis samples. We also discovered that the age of the fallows had no significant influence on the number of Collembolan species and the density of the Collembolan groups. Notably, however, species of the epedaphic genera Lepidocyrtus and Sminthurinus were associated with the 12-15 year-old fallows and presumably benefited from the high number of plant species in the old fallows. Finally, canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) indicated that the soil organic matter content and the microbial biomass, both potential food sources for many Collembolan species, were important structuring forces for the Collembolan communities.     

Dispersal of breeding, adult male Phocarctos hookeri: Implications for disease transmission, population management and species recovery

Dispersal impacts on a range of population parameters making it a key piece of information in species conservation. Despite its importance, dispersal is poorly characterized for many species: pinnipeds are no exception. Understanding dispersal patterns of the New Zealand sea lion Phocarctos hookeri is crucial in the conservation management of the species as its recovery to a non-threatened status hinges on range recolonisation. In this study, we examined the movements of breeding adult male New Zealand sea lions within and following the breeding season of the 2002/03 austral summer using a novel multi colony approach. Based on resightings of 202 individually identifiable adult males, we found (1) a previously unappreciated, high level of dispersal by adult territorial males between breeding colonies during the pupping period and (2) that breeding males disperse to the extremes of the species’ range at the end of female oestrous. Our findings are contrary to the current paradigm of otariid breeding behaviour, which is believed to consist of prolonged, uninterrupted male territoriality based on intense male-male competition and sustained fasting. Adult male dispersal between colonies and across the species range has important implications for adult males as vectors of disease in three recent epizootics, species management and species recovery via recolonisation as males are apparently remaining part of a localized, vulnerable breeding population.     

Environmental correlates of Eurasian lynx occurrence in Poland - Large scale census and GIS mapping

Based on data from the National Lynx Census, carried out in Poland in 2000-2001, and using Geographic Information System, we analysed nine habitat characteristics in 56 circular sample plots (113 km² each), where lynx (Lynx lynx) have been recorded, and 118 plots with no signs of their presence. In plots with lynx the forest cover (on average 68%) was two times higher and the forest fragmentation lower than in plots with no lynx records. The plots with and without lynx differed significantly also in the number of villages and towns, length of main motorways and railways. Lynx occurrence was negatively associated to human settlements and transportation infrastructure. Logistic regression analysis showed that sufficient forest cover (>40%) and the short straight-line distance to the eastern or southern border of Poland (as a proxy of the distance to a more contiguous range of lynx in Europe) are the two most important variables explaining lynx distribution. We conclude that, in Poland, increase of forest fragmentation and transportation infrastructure may become important threats to lynx populations.     

Agricultural insect pest compromises survival of two endemic Braya (Brassicaceae)

Agro-ecosystems support a vast array of non-native insects, but the potential of these insects to invade and degrade natural ecosystems is largely unknown. Plutella xylostella L. (diamondback moth) is a global agricultural pest that is not native to North America. It feeds on members of the Brassicaceae family, including the endangered Braya longii (Fernald) (Long’s braya) and threatened B. fernaldii (Abbe) (Fernald’s braya) which are endemic to the limestone barrens of Newfoundland, Canada. The immigration of P. xylostella from overwintering sites in the United States to this rare natural ecosystem was monitored with pheromone traps between 2003 and 2005. After their mass immigration in early summer, females lay eggs on an average of 30% of the B. longii and 16% of the B. fernaldii population. Larval feeding reduces the mean seed output of infested plants by 60%, from 10.8 to 4.3 seeds/fruit, and damages 26% of their leaves. There are residual and long-term effects of this herbivory, as many dead braya had higher numbers of eggs, and subsequent leaf and fruit damage one to three years before they died. High summer air temperatures and low precipitation allowed this pest to become multivoltine, resulting in additive damage to braya individuals. Presently, insufficient attention is directed to the impacts of agricultural pests on native ecosystems and rare host plants; hence, there is a need for both the conservation and agricultural communities to cooperate in mitigating the impacts of these pests on native biodiversity.     

Development and evaluation of predictive habitat models to assist the conservation planning of a threatened lucanid beetle, Hoplogonus simsoni, in north-east Tasmania

The use of predictive habitat distribution models by land managers in the conservation management of threatened species is increasing. Few models, however, are subsequently field-checked and evaluated. This study evaluates the statistical strength and usefulness for conservation purposes of three predictive habitat models developed for a threatened stag beetle, Hoplogonus simsoni, found in the wet eucalypt forests and mixed/rainforests of north-east Tasmania. The relationship between various environmental variables for which spatial (GIS) information was available and the density, frequency of occurrence and presence/absence of the species was investigated using generalised linear modelling. Models developed were coupled with the GIS data to develop maps of predicted occurrence within the species’ range, grouped into categories of habitat quality. The models found that altitude, aspect, slope, distance to nearest stream and overstorey tree height were significantly associated with the occurrence of the species. Evaluation of the statistical strength of the models with independent data of species’ occurrence collected at 95 sites found that the density model performed poorly with little correlation between predicted and observed densities of the species. The frequency of occurrence model, however, showed a moderate ability to predict both species’ abundance and presence/absence. The presence/absence model had a similar discriminatory ability in predicting presence or absence of H. simsoni, but also showed some potential as an indirect predictor of species’ abundance. Assuming a correlation between relative abundance and habitat quality, the frequency of occurrence predictive model appeared to be the better and more direct discriminator of high quality habitat relative to the other models. The value of species’ habitat models and the need to evaluate their utility in the development of conservation strategies are discussed.     

The western jewel butterfly (Hypochrysops halyaetus): factors affecting adult butterfly distribution within native Banksia bushland in an urban setting

Adult western jewel butterflies Hypochrysops halyaetus Hewitson were studied in the Koondoola Regional Bushland Reserve on the northern outskirts of the Perth metropolitan area, Australia, in 1999. The butterfly is myrmecophilous, and the southern (Perth) form is considered to be ‘Vulnerable’. Butterfly dispersal, distribution, population size and habitat preferences were estimated using mark-recapture techniques. Butterflies were capable of moving large distances, and were widespread within the reserve but with a low density; however, one small physical area (80 × 20 m) contained a colony with large numbers of individuals. This colony, and an adjacent area of bush, was subject to a detailed microdistribution study: 1158 butterflies were marked within it over a 25-day period. The small size of the microdistribution study area compromised statistical independence assumptions: spatial autocorrelation was tested for and corrected, where appropriate, using a Markov-chain Monte-Carlo approach. Sex differences were evident in spatial autocorrelation: female data were not spatially autocorrelated, whilst male data was. The latter probably reflects the impact of the perching mode of mate location employed by males. Butterflies appeared to prefer rather degraded bush typical of a post fire/disturbance regime with high densities of the host plant Jacksonia sternbergiana. Males were positively correlated with the proportion of bare ground, again probably relating to preferred perching sites for mate location. Females were negatively correlated with Conospremum stoechadis probably indicating dense ground cover in degraded areas and Xanthorrhoea preissii probably an indicator at the site of more mature vegetation. Reserve management to improve vegetation quality may threaten the persistence of the butterfly within the reserve, whilst controlled burning to create even quite small new areas of habitat in an urban situation may be difficult to achieve. The creation of suitable habitat may be possible using mechanical means, provided the action of fire is not an essential component of habitat creation. As the western jewel appears to prefer degraded vegetation, it is possible that there may be opportunities for this species’ expansion within the urban environment provided that its mutualistic ant partner is also present.     

Ecology and conservation of two endangered subspecies of the leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis) on Japanese islands

The conservation of rare species on islands is a special challenge, especially when the islands are faced with increasing human impact. Two endangered wild felids in Japan provide a contrast that is useful for examining conservation strategies. The Iriomote cat (Prionailurus bengalensis iriomotensis) is endemic to Iriomotejima Island in Okinawa, and the Tsushima leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis euptilurus) occurs in the Tsushima islands in Japan, although a related subspecies found in the Korean Peninsula. Population size was approximately 100 individuals for each subspecies. While the population of Iriomote cat appears relatively stable, the population and abundance of the Tsushima leopard cat has decreased in recent decades. Because of their small population sizes and restricted habitats both are listed as endangered species/subspecies in Japan’s Red List, and the Iriomote cat is listed as an endangered subspecies in the IUCN Red List. Although both are similar-sized felids living on small islands, their ecological characteristics such as food habit, habitat selection, and density differ. These differences seem to be caused by the climate, the biological environment (the species composition of fauna in each island, and the presence of competitors), and the artificial background. The threats facing these two felids are also similar. Habitat destruction, traffic accidents, and negative influences by introduced species are the principal threats to be addressed for their conservation. At the same time, there are differences in the degree of impact by each threat, in each species’ conservation programs in practice, and in the stages of progress and operation of programs. These differences are partly because they have different ecological features and partly because the social background of each island, such as human population, main industry, and historical relationship between human and wildlife, are quite different. We will compare the ecology and state of these two wild felids and discuss the different conservational situations in relation to felid ecology and human society.     

New insights into the origins and evolution of rhizobia that nodulate common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) in Brazil

It is generally accepted that there are two major centers of genetic diversification of common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.): the Mesoamerican (Mexico, Colombia, Ecuador and north of Peru, probably the primary center), and the Andean (southern Peru to north of Argentina) centers. Wild common bean is not found in Brazil, but it has been grown in the country throughout recorded history. Common bean establishes symbiotic associations with a wide range of rhizobial strains and Rhizobium etli is the dominant microsymbiont at both centers of genetic diversification. In contrast, R. tropici, originally recovered from common bean in Colombia, has been found to be the dominant species nodulating field-grown common-bean plants in Brazil. However, a recent study using soil dilutions as inocula has shown surprisingly high counts of R. etli in two Brazilian ecosystems. In the present study, RFLP-PCR analyses of nodABC and nifH genes of 43 of those Brazilian R. etli strains revealed unexpected homogeneity in their banding patterns. The Brazilian R. etli strains were closely similar in 16S rRNA sequences and in nodABC and nifH RFLP-PCR profiles to the Mexican strain CFN 42^T, and were quite distinct from R. etli and R. leguminosarum strains of European origin, supporting the hypothesis that Brazilian common bean and their rhizobia are of Mesoamerican origin, and could have arrived in Brazil in pre-colonial times. R. tropici may have been introduced to Brazilian soils later, or it may be a symbiont of other indigenous legume species and, due to its tolerance to acidic soils and high temperature conditions became the predominant microsymbiont of common bean.     

Current status and conservation of the gray snub-nosed monkey Rhinopithecus brelichi (Colobinae) in Guizhou, China

Gray snub-nosed monkeys Rhinopithecus brelichi (Colobinae), categorized as endangered on the IUCN Red List, are endemic to Guizhou, China. To evaluate the species’ current status we surveyed five sites in the Mt Fanjing area between August 2007 and June 2008. These sites were identified from previous surveys and interviews with local officials and villagers. Four sub-populations, with a total of ca. 750 individuals, were located in mixed deciduous and evergreen broad leaf forest at 800-2200 m asl. Identified threats to the species include (1) accidentally injured or killed by poaching, (2) loss or alteration of habitat through wood extraction, and (3) loss or alteration of habitat through economic activities, such as building projects and illegal mining. We recommend that several actions can be taken to alleviate the anthropogenic pressure on the ecosystem including: (1) designating specific forest reserve for sustainable wood extraction, (2) utilizing biogas to reduce firewood demands, (3) introducing local people to bamboo utilization for generate greater cash income, (4) educating for young people and encouraging them to work in developed areas, and (5) encouraging the villagers to move out the mountain.     

Habitat suitability, threats and conservation of isolated populations of the smooth snake (Coronella austriaca) in the southern Iberian Peninsula

During the Pleistocene, climatic fluctuations due to glacial and interglacial periods greatly modified the distribution of boreal organisms. One direct effect of these distribution shifts is that, along the southern edge of the range of some boreal species, populations persist only in isolated patches of suitable habitats, surrounded by less suitable areas. Isolated populations in marginal habitat are vulnerable to several threats, including climate change, anthropogenic threats, and stochastic events. We developed habitat-suitability models using Ecological Niche Factor Analysis for populations of the smooth snake, Coronella austriaca, at the southernmost limit of the species range. These models were based on historical and current records of occurrence, coupled with remote sensing data including elevation, slope, and climatic variables. Our results indicated that C. austriaca in the Iberian Peninsula occurred in areas associated with high slope and precipitation, low temperatures, and low variation in seasonal temperature and precipitation compared to areas of non-occurrence. At a broad scale, the areas classified as highly suitable for the species in the southern Iberian Peninsula were small and fragmented. At a local scale, extensive field work demonstrated that C. austriaca occurs in low densities in these areas. In addition, we detected several human-induced threats like habitat loss, favoured by temperature increase and rainfall reduction. Several life-history traits, such as dietary specialization and low frequency reproduction, also may contribute to the vulnerability of these populations to local extinctions. Although the most suitable southernmost areas are included in protected reserves, specific guidelines for management are needed to assess conservation needs.     

The relative importance of patch habitat quality and landscape attributes on a declining steppe-bird metapopulation

Metapopulation theory is one of the most popular approaches to identify the factors affecting the spatial and temporal dynamics of populations in fragmented habitat networks. Habitat quality, patch area and isolation are mainly focused on when analyzing distribution patterns in fragmented landscapes. The effects of landscape heterogeneity in the non-occupied matrix, however, have been largely neglected. Here, we determined the relative importance of patch quality and landscape attributes on the occurrence, density and extinction of the Dupont’s lark (Chersophilus duponti), an endangered steppe passerine whose habitat has been extremely reduced to highly isolated and fragmented patches embedded in a mainly unsuitable landscape matrix. Habitat patch quality, measured in terms of vegetation structure, grazing pressure, arthropod availability, predator abundance, and inter-specific competition, did not affect occurrence, density or extinction. At the landscape scale, however, the species’ occurrence was principally determined by the interactions among patch size, geographic isolation and landscape matrix. Isolation had the main independent contribution to explaining the probability of occurrence, followed by landscape matrix composition and patch size. The species’ density was negatively correlated to patch size, suggesting crowding effects in small fragments, while extinction events were exclusively related to isolation. Our findings suggest that landscape rather than local population characteristics are crucial in determining the patterns of distribution and abundance of non-equilibrium populations in highly fragmented habitat networks. Consequently, conservation measures for these species should simultaneously involve patch size, isolation and landscape matrix and apply to the entire metapopulation rather than to particular patches.     

Distribution, status, and conservation needs of the golden-crowned sifaka (Propithecus tattersalli)

The golden-crowned sifaka is considered one of the world's most endangered primates. To evaluate the species' current conservation status we established its actual distribution and abundance, and assessed current threats that affect its survival. Study methods involved direct sifaka observations and interviews to local villagers. Propithecus tattersalli's distribution is restricted to the region comprised between the Loky and Manambato rivers. Throughout its range, the species is abundant and it can even be found in small forest fragments, although it was never observed at elevations above 700 m.a.s.l. Major threats to the species include habitat destruction through slash-and-burn agriculture, grass fires, wood and gold extraction, and poaching. Total population estimates range from 6100 to 10,000 individuals, with an effective population size of approximately 2500-4000 sifakas. Though sensitive to forest destruction, the species seems to be resilient to current levels of landscape fragmentation. We recommend the establishment of a system of protected areas throughout the Loky-Manambato region and the implementation of a “Flagship Species Program” utilizing the golden-crowned sifaka as a catalyst for a regional Conservation Management Plan.     

Minimum viable population and conservation status of the Atlantic Forest spiny rat Trinomys eliasi

A population viability analysis (PVA) was conducted to assess the minimum viable population (MVP) of the Atlantic Forest spiny rat Trinomys eliasi, a species threatened by habitat loss and restricted geographical distribution. Objectives were to suggest quasi-extinction thresholds, estimate minimum areas of suitable habitat (MASH) and MVPs, and compare results with the species’ current status. The computer package VORTEX was used. The model predicted sizes of 200 animals to achieve demographic stability, but buffering declines in genetic variability required populations of 2000 animals. Estimated MASHs were approximately 250 and 2500 ha for demographic and genetic stability, respectively. Mortality rate and mean litter size were the most sensitive parameters to changes in model assumptions. The protection of known populations and the search for extant populations are the first steps in conservation. T. eliasi's issue could help protecting the coastal shrubland ecosystem of Rio de Janeiro state. Observing IUCN's criteria for listing threatened species, it is suggested that T. eliasi should be ranked as vulnerable in red lists.     

Location of roosts of the lesser long-eared bat Nyctophilus geoffroyi and Gould's wattled bat Chalinolobus gouldii in a fragmented landscape in south-eastern Australia

The location of roosts of two species of vespertilionid bats, the lesser long-eared bat (Nyctophilus geoffroyi) and Gould’s wattled bat (Chalinolobus gouldii), was investigated in a remnant vegetation-farmland mosaic and adjacent floodplain forest in south-eastern Australia. A total of 45 individuals of N. geoffroyi and 27 C. gouldii were fitted with radio transmitters, which resulted in the location of 139 and 89 roosts respectively. Selection of roosting habitat showed both inter- and intra-specific differences. At the landscape level, locations of roosts used by male and female N. geoffroyi differed markedly. Most males roosted in the farmland mosaic within 3 km (mean 1.9±2.9 km) of where they were captured while foraging in remnant vegetation. In contrast, roost sites of females were predominantly in the floodplain forest, 6-12 km from their capture site in farmland (mean for all females, 6.7±2.9 km). All maternity roosts were in the extensive floodplain forest, 4-10 km from foraging areas. Distances moved by this species were greater than previously recorded and further than predicted by flight morphology. Most C. gouldii roosted in the floodplain forest, 4-10 km from their capture site (6.9±1.6 km). Within the floodplain forest, both species roosted in areas that had higher densities of hollow-bearing trees than generally available; dead hollow-bearing trees for N. geoffroyi and large, live trees for C. gouldii. The scale of movements undertaken by these species means that they can obtain resources from multiple landscape elements. Both species used different habitats for roosting and foraging despite the energetic costs of commuting relatively large distances. Conservation of bat populations in rural environments needs to be considered at the landscape scale, with particular attention to identifying landscape elements that provide key resources.     

Reproductive biology and conservation implications of three endangered snapdragon species (Antirrhinum, Plantaginaceae)

About 32% of Antirrhinum species are considered to be endangered; however, no field studies have focused on their reproductive biology. In this work, several aspects of the reproductive biology (flowering phenology, floral biology, breeding system) and potential limits on seed quantity and quality (pollen limitation, inbreeding depression) were studied in natural populations of three endangered species of the genus (Antirrhinum charidemi, Antirrhinum subbaeticum, Antirrhinum valentinum). Results disclose that all three species need insect visitors for seed production since fruit set after autonomous self-pollination was lower than under hand cross-pollination. A. charidemi and A. valentinum were mainly self-incompatible, whereas A. subbaeticum was self-compatible but herkogamous. Supplementary pollination in open-pollinated flowers only increased fruit set and seed set relative to controls in a given population of A. valentinum. Preliminary data on inbreeding depression at early life-cycle stages of the self-compatible A. subbaeticum revealed that the cumulative level was low. Despite the three species being closely related and sharing many ecological characteristics, they show different mating systems, and different factors limit seed quantity and quality. Thus, caution should be taken when making a common conservation plan for a group of closely related taxa.