Recovery expenditures for birds listed under the US Endangered Species Act: The disparity between mainland and Hawaiian taxa

Since the arrival of humans more than half of the Hawaiian archipelago’s known endemic bird taxa have been lost. Of the taxa that remain, 31 are federally listed under the US Endangered Species Act and 17 have populations of less than 1000 individuals. Previous studies have documented a geographic disparity in recovery expenditures on listed species, but none have specifically focused on Hawaiian birds. To draw attention to this disparity with the aim to improve Hawaiian bird conservation, I summarized recovery expenditures on listed birds from 1996 to 2004 comparing mainland and Hawaiian taxa in the context of their degree of endangerment. Federal and state spending on the 95 listed bird taxa over this nine year period totaled $752,779,924. Hawaiian birds comprise a third of the listed bird taxa (n = 31), yet dedicated recovery expenditures was only $30,592,692 or 4.1% of the total spent on all listed birds. Despite similar priority ranks assigned by the US Fish and Wildlife Service, listed mainland birds received over 15 times the funding of Hawaiian birds. In general, the threats to island taxa are unlike those of mainland taxa (e.g., non-native predators), management actions are expensive, and in many cases they must be conducted in perpetuity. Because of the status of many Hawaiian birds and the threats facing them, current recovery expenditures are inadequate to prevent additional extinctions.     

Linking resource use with demography in a synanthropic population of common ravens

A thorough understanding of a population’s ecology requires knowledge of the relationship between habitat use, resource use and demographic parameters. We undertook an empirical investigation of habitat use, resource use and demography in a population of common ravens (Corvus corax), a species widely distributed throughout the Northern Hemisphere. The abundance of ravens is increasing in many parts of western North America, which represents a conservation concern since predation by ravens is thought to contribute to the decline of several sensitive species. We defined resources as the suite of physical and biological components in the environment that led to occupancy of a particular place by ravens. The home ranges of breeding and nonbreeding ravens contained similar proportions of resources, but breeding ravens used more edges, roads, forest, clearcuts, and towns than nonbreeders. We detected no differences in survival between the sexes, but breeding ravens survived at higher rates than nonbreeders, due to exclusion by breeding ravens from those resources positively associated with survival. Raven use of mature forests and anthropogenic land use types was positively associated with survival. Breeding raven use of clearcuts and patchy areas contributed to increased reproduction, but the use of clearcuts along with the use of roads was negatively associated with survival due to illegal shooting. Greater insight into the demography of synanthropic species such as the common raven will enable managers to make informed decisions for protecting biodiversity. This study is the first to consider the demographic consequences of habitat use and resource use for both nonbreeding and breeding common ravens.     

Decision analysis to guide recovery of the po‘ouli, a critically endangered Hawaiian honeycreeper

We used a probabilistic decision tree to help select among alternative recovery strategies for the Po‘ouli, a critically endangered forest bird endemic to the Hawaiian island of Maui. The Po‘ouli is one of the rarest birds in the world, with only three individuals known, and no breeding pairs. The most urgent conservation need for the species is to create a breeding pair and obtain eggs for captive propagation. Seven recovery strategies had been proposed, and there was disagreement among conservation workers about which strategy to pursue. In addition to lengthy discussions, a decision tree was introduced to provide an objective way of quantifying the chance of success under each alternative. All available information was used to attempt evaluation of each node in the decision tree. The overall chance of obtaining eggs was calculated by multiplying estimates at each node under each alternative. All options produced low estimates of potential success, but two options, removal of all birds to captivity and placement of the birds in a field aviary in an accessible location, produced similar estimates of success. The US Fish and Wildlife Service and the Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife eventually agreed that removal to captivity was the preferred alternative because it could be implemented quickly, which was important considering the advanced age of the birds, and would make it easier to provide veterinary care and ensure their safety from predators, severe weather, and vandals. Decision trees and other structured models should not be relied on exclusively, but they can provide an objective method of helping to make difficult conservation decisions and provide a record of complex thought processes used in reaching a determination. The case of the Po‘ouli may serve as a template for navigation towards a decision to recover other species of extreme rarity.     

Effects of microsite, water, weeding, and direct seeding on the regeneration of native and alien species within a Hawaiian dry forest preserve

Tropical dry forests are among the most endangered ecosystems in the world in general and in Hawaii in particular. To investigate the regeneration ecology of native and alien dry forest species on the island of Hawaii, we used a factorial experiment with microsite (sub-canopy vs. inter-canopy), water (supplemental vs. ambient), and weeding (alien species removed vs. not removed) treatments, and also seeded six native woody species into each plot at the start of the experiment. At the end of the 21-month study, the biomass of the volunteer native and alien species (i.e. unplanted species consisting mainly of relatively fast-growing shrubs) was nearly three and 13 times that of the seeded species, respectively. The biomass of the native volunteers was greater in the inter-canopy plots, greater for the seeded species in the sub-canopy plots, and did not differ significantly within this treatment for the alien species. Few species survived in the ambient water plots, resulting in greater biomass in the watered plots for all species. There were no significant differences in the biomass of the native species within the weeded vs. non-weeded plots; on the contrary, we found consistently positive correlations between the abundance of the seeded species and the volunteer native and alien species. Thus it may be possible to restore Hawaii's degraded dry forests by manipulating these naturally recruiting species to create microsites favorable for the eventual re-establishment of the endangered native canopy tree flora.     

Distribution of the Mallorcan midwife toad (Alytes muletensis) in relation to landscape topography and introduced predators

The endemic midwife toad of Mallorca (Alytes muletensis) is restricted to a small number of breeding populations in the mountainous northwest of the island. The decline of the species has been attributed to the impacts of introduced species such as the viperine snake (Natrix maura) and green frog (Rana perezi), and toads may be surviving only in areas that are suboptimal for these predators. The influence of landscape features (elevation, aspect and maximum slope) on the distribution of toads and associated predators was therefore investigated using GIS. The presence of toads was positively associated with steep slopes. At sites where they occurred with toads, the distribution of predators was negatively associated with elevation. Reproductive success within toad populations was strongly associated with the number of pools at each site, while reproductive success within individual pools was positively associated with elevation. These findings may be used to optimise the design and location of future reintroduction sites.     

Paying for wolves in Solapur, India and Wisconsin, USA: Comparing compensation rules and practice to understand the goals and politics of wolf conservation

With growing pressure for conservation to pay its way, the merits of compensation for wildlife damage must be understood in diverse socio-ecological settings. Here we compare compensation programs in Wisconsin, USA and Solapur, India, where wolves (Canis lupus) survive in landscapes dominated by agriculture and pasture. At both sites, rural citizens were especially negative toward wolves, even though other wild species caused more damage. Wisconsin and Solapur differ in payment rules and funding sources, which reflect distinct conservation and social goals. In Wisconsin, as wolves recolonized the state, some periodically preyed on livestock and hunting dogs. Ranchers and some hunters were more likely to oppose wolves than were other citizens. The Wisconsin compensation program aimed to restore an iconic species by using voluntary contributions from wolf advocates to pay affected individuals more for wolf losses than for other species. By contrast, wolves had been continuously present in Solapur, and damages were distributed amongst the general populace. Government-supported compensation payments were on offer to anyone suffering losses, yet claims registered were low. There were no significant differences in attitudes of any particular segment of the population, but those losing high value livestock applied for compensation. Residents at both sites did not report (Wisconsin) or expect (Solapur) a change in attitude towards wolves as a result of compensation, yet they support the existence of such programs. To assess the merits of any compensation program, one must disentangle the multiple goals of compensation, such as reducing wolf killing or more fairly sharing the costs of conserving large carnivores.     

Reintroducing endangered Vancouver Island marmots: Survival and cause-specific mortality rates of captive-born versus wild-born individuals

Recovery of the endangered Vancouver Island marmot (Marmota vancouverensis) is contingent upon releases of captive-born marmots into natural habitats. Success of such re-introduction programs largely depends on the ability of released animals to survive in the wild. However, whether and to what extent survival and cause-specific mortality rates of captive-born marmots differ from those of their wild-born counterparts remains unknown. We used radio-telemetry (1992–2007) and mark-resighting (1987–2007) data to estimate seasonal and annual survival rates of the Vancouver Island marmot, to compare survival and cause-specific mortality rates of captive-born marmots that have been released into the natural habitat with those of wild-born marmots, and to test for the effect of age-at-release on survival of the released marmots. Analysis of radio-telemetry data suggested no difference in survival of males versus females. However, annual survival of captive-born marmots released into the wild was low (S = 0.605; 95% CI = 0.507–0.696) compared to wild-born marmots (S = 0.854; 95% CI = 0.760–0.915). Marmots released as 2-year-old or older survived more successfully than those released as yearlings. Additional forensic evidence reinforced the idea that predation was the most important cause of mortality. Causes of death differed significantly between captive-born and wild-born marmots. Predation by golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetus) was the most important cause of mortality for captive-born marmots, whereas predation by wolves (Canis lupus) and cougars (Felis concolor) was more important for wild-born marmots. Age-specific apparent annual survival rate, estimated using the combined mark-resighting and radio-telemetry data, was lowest for pups (S = 0.500; 95% CI = 0.375–0.616) and highest for yearlings and adults (S = 0.656; 95% CI = 0.604–0.705); and apparent survival of 2-year-old was similar to that of yearlings and adults (S = 0.649; 95% CI = 0.527–0.754). Our results, based on the analysis of radio-telemetry data, suggest that delaying release of captive-born marmots until 2 years of age may enhance their probability of survival in the wild, and will likely improve the success of the release program.     

Evaluating effects of deforestation, hunting, and El Niño events on a threatened lemur

Madagascar ranks as one of the world’s top extinction hotspots because of its high endemism and high rate of habitat degradation. Global climate phenomena such as El Niño Southern Oscillations may have confounding impacts on the island’s threatened biota but these effects are less well known. We performed a demographic study of Propithecus edwardsi, a lemur inhabiting the eastern rainforest of Madagascar, to evaluate the impact of deforestation, hunting, and El Niño on its population and to re-evaluate present endangerment categorization under the IUCN. Over 18 years of demographic data, including survival and fecundity rates were used to parameterize a stochastic population model structured with three stage classes (yearlings, juveniles, and adults). Results demonstrate that hunting and deforestation are the most significant threats to the population. Analysis of several plausible scenarios and combinations of threat revealed that a 50% population decline within three generations was very likely, supporting current IUCN classification. However, the analysis also suggested that changing global cycles may pose further threat. The average fecundity of lemurs was over 65% lower during El Niño years. While not as severe as deforestation or hunting, if El Niño events remain at the current high frequency there may be negative consequences for the population. We suggest that it is most critical for this species continued survival to create more protected areas, not only to thwart hunting and deforestation, but also to give this endangered lemur a better chance to recover from and adapt to altered climate cycles in the future.     

Overview of the structure and the challenges of Japanese wildlife law and policy

Japan has a variety of laws to conserve and manage wildlife and biodiversity. This article reviews Japanese laws from conservation of endangered species to the fish and game code, and indicates the issues and challenges they face. It then discusses the issues and challenges for management in the application of the laws.The Japanese statute for conservation of endangered species corresponds to the US Endangered Species Act in appearance, but is much more limited in application and scope. There is no legal channel, such as lawsuits, to assure citizens’ and experts’ input. With respect to general species, management of fish and animals are divided; the fish code’s scope is limited to fishery purposes. Control of wildlife damage is the biggest emphasis in the wildlife code. Reform to bring principles of scientific management into pest control has begun, but conventional culling is still the norm.Japan’ wildlife and fish management is distinctive in relying upon local resource users, instead of on a strong regulatory agency. This is a consequence of traditional communal management, and is apparent in coastal fisheries. The depopulation and exhaustion of rural communities, however, makes it difficult to rely on the community for management. In particular, wildlife management, which relies on aging hunters, is facing a turning point. To address these changes, agencies must be strengthened and lawmakers must enact a mechanism to assure sound science in wildlife policy, while working to revitalize rural communities.     

Using a five-factored structured decision analysis to evaluate the extinction risk of Atlantic sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus)

In 2005, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) National Marine Fisheries Service initiated a status review of Atlantic sturgeon to determine if the species warranted a threatened or endangered listing under the Endangered Species Act (ESA). The Atlantic sturgeon status review team intended to rely on previously used methods to assess extinction risk, but found that most quantitative extinction risk analyses were performed on data-rich populations and often did not systematically consider the five factors specified in Section 4(a)(1) of the ESA as required for listing a species. Taking cues from structured decision analysis theory, the team created a framework, based around the five factors, which can be used to evaluate the status of data-poor species. Potential scoring biases were minimized in this analysis by providing experts with standardized reference points for scoring, dividing the analysis into smaller units, and using both individual and group opinion. Using this five-factored structured decision analysis, the status review team recommended that three of the five distinct population segments warranted listing as threatened. The status review team offers their approach to increase transparency about their scientific recommendation and to aid other teams who are tasked with systematically evaluating the status of data-poor species.     

Long-term influence of mowing on population dynamics in the rare orchid Dactylorhiza lapponica: The importance of recruitment and seed production

Many orchids are currently red-listed due to changes in land use, and their future persistence will depend on management. Traditional land use like mowing is believed to favour orchids through increased survival and reproduction of established individuals, but the lack of data connecting their complex life cycle presently limits our ability to evaluate effects of management. Here we used data from 16 years of demographic monitoring to study how mowing affects population dynamics in two populations of the rare orchid Dactylorhiza lapponica. Both populations were characterized by long-lived individuals, low adult mortality and high seedling mortality. The traditional regime of mowing every second year strongly increased recruitment and reduced seed production in both populations, but had moderate effect on adult survival, growth rate and flowering probability. Population growth rate was positive for all population × treatment combinations. Traditional mowing significantly increased growth rate in both populations, and LTRE-analyses revealed that this primarily was a result of increased recruitment. The results indicate that demographic rates commonly associated with orchid persistence may be insensitive to traditional management, and underscores the importance of seed production and recruitment to maintain population growth in this long-lived species. The combination of low establishment success and no seed bank makes D. lapponica dependent on high seed input. Our results suggest that D. lapponica would benefit most from traditional mowing performed after seed dispersal in the study areas, but also suggest a high probability of future survival in the absence of mowing.     

Evaluating the non-consumptive, positive effects of a predator in the persistence of an endangered species

Failure to consider both the consumptive and non-consumptive effects of predators on prey can lead to erroneous conclusions about the net effect of the relationship. The predatory devil crayfish, Cambarus diogenes Girard functions as an ecosystem engineer constructing extensive burrow systems through aquatic habitats. Despite crayfish posing a serious predation threat, preliminary data indicate that the federally endangered Hines Emerald dragonfly larvae, Somatochlora hineana Williamson regularly inhabit crayfish burrows. During late summer, S. hineana larval habitat dries up; leaving crayfish burrows as some of the only wetted habitats. Thus, C. diogenes can affect S. hineana through both direct, negative and indirect positive effects. We examined the positive role of crayfish burrows as drought refuges, and the threat of predation by C. diogenes on S. hineana larvae. Monthly field sampling indicated that S. hineana use open channel areas in spring and early summer moving into burrow systems in mid summer when channel areas normally dry. Laboratory experiments and field observations confirmed that crayfish prey on S. hineana larvae. Adult crayfish were a larger predation threat than juvenile crayfish. Despite their negative predatory impact, removal of crayfish from burrows in the field did not enhance densities of S. hineana larvae. Although S. hineana may face the threat of predation in burrows, they face a greater risk of desiccation if they remain in the open channel. These results lead to the counterintuitive conclusion that the maintenance of a predator is important for conserving an endangered prey species.     

Successful reintroductions of the endangered long-lived Sargent’s cherry palm, Pseudophoenix sargentii, in the Florida Keys

The 1991-1994 reintroductions of Florida endangered Pseudophoenix sargentii to 13 Florida Keys sites represent a rare example of a successful multi-agency long-term effort to conserve a long-lived palm. To assess reintroduction success, we compared population demographics with and without reintroduced plants and conducted population viability analyses. Since 1991, the wild population has increased 6.4-fold. Survival from 2000-2004 was 94%, growth was positive (λ = 1.013), and there was no predicted extinction risk. Recent wild population growth is attributed to good seedling recruitment and removing the greatest threats. After 14 years, reintroductions had 43% survival, increased total plants in the wild by 27%, and expanded the species’ distribution. Reintroduced plants had faster maturation rates, improved population age structure, and enhanced population growth (λ = 1.032). Success varied with transplant year, location, microsite, and original transplant size. Failures in 1991 and at some historic sites emphasize the need for a multi-year, multi-site approach to reintroductions to buffer against stochastic losses. Rockland hammocks and the tops of coastal berms had greatest plant growth and survival. Large transplants had the greatest survival. Because no reintroduced plants are reproductive, transitions between stages are extremely slow, and plants may require >30 years to mature, continued institutional dedication to long-term monitoring will be required to assess whether the populations are self-sustaining. Horticultural expertise and ex situ collections complimented support of land managing agencies for the species’ preservation. These first rare plant reintroductions to Florida State Parks opened avenues for more plant conservation efforts and public interpretation.     

Modelling the population dynamics of the Mt. Graham red squirrel: Can we predict its future in a changing environment with multiple threats?

The Mt. Graham red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus grahamensis; MGRS) is among the most critically endangered mammals in the United States and is isolated on the periphery of the species’ range, potentially increasing its conservation priority. To investigate potential threats to the population and provide a tool for land managers, we developed a spatially explicit population dynamics model. We tested model predictions using available range-wide data from the literature and field work specific to the MGRS. A general model input data set using mean life history values overpredicted MGRS abundance. However, we found significant correlation with known squirrel abundance using a general data set with curtailed fecundity and survival. A model with MGRS-specific data provided the best fit to observed population size. We investigated potential impacts of two major threats to the MGRS: competition from introduced Abert’s squirrels (Sciurus aberti) and increased levels of predation. Predation and particularly competition could have significant effects on the future population of the MGRS. Careful attention must be used to model the viability of fringe populations as peripheral populations can have a different life history than populations found in the range core.     

Experimental use of salt to control the invasive marine alga Caulerpa taxifolia in New South Wales, Australia

Caulerpa taxifolia was first discovered in New South Wales, Australia, in April 2000 and is now present in nine waterways. Infestations, which range from sparse distributions of scattered runners to dense beds 40 cm thick, covered approximately 8.1 km² by mid 2004. Various methods for controlling the alga were trialed. The application of coarse sea salt at a concentration of 50 kg/m² was found to be the most effective method as it rapidly killed the alga, had relatively minor effects on native biota (seagrass and infauna) and was relatively inexpensive. In small-scale trials, frond density of C. taxifolia had decreased by 70-95% one week after salting and no fronds were present after 1 or 6 months. Seagrass and infauna were also affected by salt, but abundances had generally recovered after 6 months. The effectiveness of salting at larger scales depended on the method of application and salting appeared to be most successful in the cooler months when C. taxifolia dies back naturally. Results of large-scale salting trials were mixed. In one waterway, a single application of salt resulted in the apparent removal of almost 5200 m² of C. taxifolia; in another, repeated salting of a 3000 m² infestation led to a considerable reduction in the density of the alga, but no overall change in the boundaries of the infestation. Eradication of C. taxifolia from New South Wales is unlikely, but local control measures, extensive monitoring and experimentation are continuing in an attempt to limit the impact of this invasive alga.     

Effects of Key deer herbivory on forest communities in the lower Florida Keys

Ungulate herbivory can have strong impacts on plant communities, but these impacts are rarely considered in recovery plans of endangered species. This study examined the effects of the endangered Key deer (Odocoileus virginianus clavium) on its environment in the lower Florida Keys. The Key deer population has increased to over 700 deer from approximately 50 deer in the 1950s; however, approximately 75% of the population resides on only a few islands (Big Pine, No Name, Big Munson) where Key deer herbivory on forest communities may be substantial. Effects of deer herbivory on plant densities were estimated on these islands using vegetation quadrats in hardwood hammock, buttonwood transition, and mangrove wetlands and compared to nine other islands with intermediate or low deer densities. On islands with high deer density, densities of preferred woody plant species <1.2 m tall (within Key deer reach) were significantly lower than islands with lower deer densities, while densities of some nonpreferred species were significantly higher. Deer exclosures established in hardwood hammock on a high-density deer island revealed a mean increase in abundance/height of preferred woody species inside exclosures, while nonpreferred species significantly increased in open plots. We conclude that on high deer density islands, highly preferred plant species might eventually fail to regenerate and unpalatable plant species may become dominant. Careful criteria need to be developed to maintain Key deer numbers above an endangered species status yet below levels that are destructive to local forest species.     

Colonization with endo-mycorrhiza affects the resistance of safflower in response to salinity condition

Two Safflower (Carthamus tinctoriusL.) cultivars' seeds were used to study the influence of inoculation with mycorrhiza arbuscular fungi under salinity stress condition. Factorial experiment based on completely randomized design (three-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)) with 3 replications was used. Salinity treatment with 3 levels (0.5, 6, and 12 dS/m) and mycorrhizal arbuscular inoculation with two species (three levels consist of non-inoculation, and inoculation with Glomus intraradices and G. moseae) were applied on two cultivars of safflower (Goldasht and Padide) in this experiment. Some important biochemical, mineral, and growth traits were measured in this study. Salinity had a significant negative effect on all growth and morphological parameters including shoot and root dry weight, stem and root height. On the other hand, colonized plants showed better growth parameters under saline conditions compared with the control. The colonization of both mycorrhizal species decreased with salinity. Sugar and pigment content decreased with salinity, but their levels in colonized plants under saline conditions were higher than that in non-colonized plants. Mineral elements including phosphorus (P), nitrogen (N), and magnesium (Mg) were higher in colonized plants, while salinity decreased the absorption of these elements in both inoculated and non-inoculated plants. Higher activity of the enzymatic antioxidant means higher removal of these compounds and higher resistance to stress condition. Overall, it is clear that salinity had a negative effect on both cultivars of safflower, but these negative effects were lower in inoculated plants than in the non-inoculated ones; so, the use of mycorrhizal inoculation is a proper way to control the effect of salinity and maintain plant production.     

Conservation status and limiting factors in the endangered population of Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus) in the Canary Islands

Egyptian vulture populations have decreased sharply in the Western Palearctic; island populations are almost extinct in the Mediterranean and the Macaronesian regions. In the Canary archipelago, the species only survives in the islands of Fuerteventura and Lanzarote. During 1998-2001 we examined population parameters and evaluated some potential limiting factors for this isolated and sedentary population. The total population (breeding and non-breeding birds) was monitored annually. In addition, 26 fledglings and 33 immatures (<6 years old) and adult birds were captured for individual marking with plastic rings. Twenty-three/twenty-four occupied territories were located in the island and the total population estimated at around 130 birds. Breeding success was lower than recorded elsewhere in the species' distribution area: only 0.43 fledglings/pair/year were produced. Adult (>6 years old birds) and immature annual survival rates were similar, around 90%. Adult survival was lower than expected as territorial birds seem more susceptible to poisoning. Immature survival could be favoured by the existence of regular feeding places. Casualties from power lines was the main cause of mortality (12 cases during the study period). Blood sampling revealed high frequencies of lead poisoning: 13.5 and 2.7% of individuals showed sub-clinical and clinical intoxication levels, respectively, probably caused by the ingestion of lead shot. Priority conservation measures should be directed to reduce electrocution risks, illegal poisoning, and lead contamination. Population reinforcement with birds coming from other populations is not recommended as previous information reveals morphological and genetic differentiation of Canarian Egyptian vultures compared with continental populations.     

Effect of human activities on bearded vulture behaviour and breeding success in the French Pyrenees

The bearded vulture is a threatened species for which human disturbance has been suggested as an important factor potentially influencing breeding success. Additionally, disturbance remains one of the few factors that is possible to control through directed policy. We evaluated the effect of human activities on the behaviour and breeding success of bearded vultures breeding in the French Pyrenees. Human activities influenced bearded vulture behaviour (primarily through a decrease in nest attendance), but this effect varied in relation to the type of activities and the distance to the nest. Very noisy activities and hunting most frequently provoked nest unattendance even when occurring far (>1.5 km) from the nest. People on foot or cars/planes only affected bearded vulture behaviour if close (<500-700 m) to the nest. We also found a significant relationship between human activities and vulture breeding success: the probability of failure increased with the frequency of human activities. In particular, there was a significant relationship between the probability of failure and the frequency of very noisy activities. We discuss the implications of our results for management schemes and conservation of this species.     

How important is clonal recruitment for population maintenance in rare plant species?: the case of the narrow endemic cactus, Stenocereus eruca, in Baja California, México

Stenocereus eruca is a postrate columnar cactus whose regeneration seems to occur mainly through clonal propagation. It is a narrow endemic species of the Sonoran desert in Baja California Sur and currently considered as threatened under Mexican legislation. In this paper we describe the demography of ramets in four populations along its distribution range and the demography of genets in one population during a 3-year-study period in order to evaluate its conservation status. We also analyze the relative contribution of sexual reproduction and clonal propagation to population maintenance and provide guidelines for the formulation of conservation programs. Elasticity analyses were used to explore the relative contribution of sexual and clonal recruitment to projected population growth rate (λ). During the three years of study, regeneration occurred only through clonal propagation while sexually derived seedlings were not detected within or outside the permanent plots. Our demographic data showed that the four population of S. eruca are in equilibrium (λ ≈ 1), and elasticity analyses showed that the relative contribution to λ of clonal recruitment was larger than sexual recruitment, at least during the analyzed ecological time scale. Simulations showed that removing sexual recruitment had a minor impact on λ, but the absence of clonal propagation alone was sufficient to keep below unity. We propose the establishment of at least one reserve with adequate protection from human disturbance to conserve S. eruca.