Effect of pesticide fate parameters and their uncertainty on the selection of 'worst-case' scenarios of pesticide leaching to groundwater

BACKGROUND: For the registration of pesticides in the European Union, model simulations for worst‐case scenarios are used to demonstrate that leaching concentrations to groundwater do not exceed a critical threshold. A worst‐case scenario is a combination of soil and climate properties for which predicted leaching concentrations are higher than a certain percentile of the spatial concentration distribution within a region. The derivation of scenarios is complicated by uncertainty about soil and pesticide fate parameters. As the ranking of climate and soil property combinations according to predicted leaching concentrations is different for different pesticides, the worst‐case scenario for one pesticide may misrepresent the worst case for another pesticide, which leads to ‘scenario uncertainty’. RESULTS: Pesticide fate parameter uncertainty led to higher concentrations in the higher percentiles of spatial concentration distributions, especially for distributions in smaller and more homogeneous regions. The effect of pesticide fate parameter uncertainty on the spatial concentration distribution was small when compared with the uncertainty of local concentration predictions and with the scenario uncertainty. CONCLUSION: Uncertainty in pesticide fate parameters and scenario uncertainty can be accounted for using higher percentiles of spatial concentration distributions and considering a range of pesticides for the scenario selection. Copyright © 2010 Society of Chemical Industry     

Influence of dispersion length on leaching calculated with PEARL, PELMO and PRZM for FOCUS groundwater scenarios

Harmonisation of the assessment of pesticide leaching to groundwater for EU registration is desirable to minimise confusion in the decision-making process at EU level. Recently, the FOCUS groundwater scenarios have been developed for three chromatographic models (PEARL, PELMO and PRZM) to increase this harmonisation. This study investigates the role of dispersion parameterisation in explaining the cause of the differences in pesticide leaching calculated by these models. PEARL describes dispersion via a physical parameter, ie the dispersion length. PELMO and PRZM simulate dispersion via a numerical procedure which generates an effective dispersion length equal to 0.5 times the thickness of the numerical compartments. The hypothesis was tested that the difference in the dispersion length input parameter (ie 5 cm for PEARL and about 2.5 cm for PELMO and PRZM) is a major cause of the difference in calculated leaching. It was tested whether results of PEARL calculations with a dispersion length of 2.5 cm corresponded much better to results of PELMO or PRZM than results of PEARL calculations with a dispersion length of 5 cm. This was done by calculations for one substance and all nine FOCUS scenarios and by calculations for a range of substances and two FOCUS scenarios (Chateaudun and Sevilla). All calculations were for winter wheat and an application at 1 day before emergence. Both tests showed that reduction of the dispersion length from 5 to 2.5 cm in PEARL led to a much better correspondence between PEARL and either PELMO or PRZM. Hence the hypothesis was supported. It is likely that harmonisation of the dispersion length in the FOCUS groundwater scenarios would reduce the differences in calculated leaching between PEARL and PELMO or PRZM considerably for part of these scenarios.     

A screening tool for vulnerability assessment of pesticide leaching to groundwater for the islands of Hawaii, USA

This paper describes an updated version of a screening tool for groundwater vulnerability assessment to evaluate pesticide leaching to groundwater, based on a revised version of the attenuation factor. The tool has been implemented in a geographical information system (GIS) covering the major islands of the state of Hawaii, USA. The Hawaii Department of Agriculture currently uses the tool in their pesticide evaluation process as a first-tier screening tool. The basic soil properties and pesticide properties necessary to compute the index, and estimates of their uncertainty, are included in the GIS. Uncertainties in soil and pesticide properties are accounted for using first-order uncertainty analysis. Classifications of pesticides as 'likely', 'uncertain' or 'unlikely' to leach are made on the basis of the uncertainty and a comparison of the revised attenuation factor with values and uncertainties of two reference chemicals. The reference chemicals represent what are considered to be a 'leachable' and a 'non-leachable' pesticide under Hawaii conditions. It is concluded that the tool is suitable for screening new and already used pesticides for the islands of Hawaii. However, the tool is associated with uncertainties that are not accounted for, so a conservative approach with respect to interpretation of the results and selection of pesticide parameters used in the tool is recommended.     

Approaches to refining pesticide risk assessments – the spatial estimation of potential leaching risk

A Geographic Information System (GIS) has been combined with a simple leaching model to characterize the factors that influence pesticide leaching, and to identify the spatial distribution of these factors. The results were compared with those of a conventional simulation modeling approach, and a strong correlation was found for 40 selected sites in central and eastern USA. ©1999 Society of Chemical Industry     

Uncalibrated modelling of conservative tracer and pesticide leaching to groundwater: comparison of potential Tier II exposure assessment models

The Root Zone Water Quality Model (RZWQM) and Pesticide Root Zone Model (PRZM) are currently being considered by the Office of Pesticide Programs (OPP) in the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) for Tier II screening of pesticide leaching to groundwater (November 2005). The objective of the present research was to compare RZWQM and PRZM based on observed conservative tracer and pesticide pore water and soil concentrations collected in two unique groundwater leaching studies in North Carolina and Georgia. These two sites had been used previously by the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) Environmental Model Validation Task Force (EMVTF) in the validation of PRZM. As in the FIFRA EMVTF PRZM validation, 'cold' modelling using input parameters based on EPA guidelines/databases and 'site-specific' modelling using field-measured soil and hydraulic parameters were performed with a recently released version of RZWQM called RZWQM-NAWQA (National Water Quality Assessment). Model calibration was not performed for either the 'cold' or 'site-specific' modelling. The models were compared based on predicted pore water and soil concentrations of bromide and pesticides throughout the soil profile. Both models tended to predict faster movement through the soil profile than observed. Based on a quantitative normalised objective function (NOF), RZWQM-NAWQA generally outperformed or was equivalent to PRZM in simulating pore water and soil concentrations. Both models were more successful in predicting soil concentrations (i.e. NOF < 1.0 for site-specific data, which satisfies site-specific applicability) than they were at predicting pore water concentrations.     

Calibration of pesticide leaching models: critical review and guidance for reporting

Calibration of pesticide leaching models may be undertaken to evaluate the ability of models to simulate experimental data, to assist in their parameterisation where values for input parameters are difficult to determine experimentally, to determine values for specific model inputs (e.g. sorption and degradation parameters) and to allow extrapolations to be carried out. Although calibration of leaching models is a critical phase in the assessment of pesticide exposure, lack of guidance means that calibration procedures default to the modeller. This may result in different calibration and extrapolation results for different individuals depending on the procedures used, and thus may influence decisions regarding the placement of crop-protection products on the market. A number of issues are discussed in this paper including data requirements and assessment of data quality, the selection of a model and parameters for performing calibration, the use of automated calibration techniques as opposed to more traditional trial-and-error approaches, difficulties in the comparison of simulated and measured data, differences in calibration procedures, and the assessment of parameter values derived by calibration. Guidelines for the reporting of calibration activities within the scope of pesticide registration are proposed.     

Accounting for uncertainty in pedotransfer functions in vulnerability assessments of pesticide leaching to groundwater

A simulation tool for site-specific vulnerability assessments of pesticide leaching to groundwater was developed, based on the pesticide fate and transport model MACRO, parameterized using pedotransfer functions and reasonable worst-case parameter values. The effects of uncertainty in the pedotransfer functions on simulation results were examined for 48 combinations of soils, pesticides and application timings, by sampling pedotransfer function regression errors and propagating them through the simulation model in a Monte Carlo analysis. An uncertainty factor, f(u), was derived, defined as the ratio between the concentration simulated with no errors, c(sim), and the 80th percentile concentration for the scenario. The pedotransfer function errors caused a large variation in simulation results, with f(u) ranging from 1.14 to 1440, with a median of 2.8. A non-linear relationship was found between f(u) and c(sim), which can be used to account for parameter uncertainty by correcting the simulated concentration, c(sim), to an estimated 80th percentile value. For fine-textured soils, the predictions were most sensitive to errors in the pedotransfer functions for two parameters regulating macropore flow (the saturated matrix hydraulic conductivity, K(b), and the effective diffusion pathlength, d) and two water retention function parameters (van Genuchten's N and alpha parameters). For coarse-textured soils, the model was also sensitive to errors in the exponent in the degradation water response function and the dispersivity, in addition to K(b), but showed little sensitivity to d. To reduce uncertainty in model predictions, improved pedotransfer functions for K(b), d, N and alpha would therefore be most useful.     

Application of the pesticide transport assessment model to a field study in a humic sandy soil in Vredepeel,The Netherlands

The Pesticide Transport Assessment model (PESTRAS) is a process-oriented model to simulate the fate and movement of water and pesticides in a cropped field soil. The model was evaluated using field data for bromide, ethoprophos and bentazone, collected from a field experiment in a humic sandy soil near Vredepeel, the Netherlands. Model predictions were generally within the 95% confidence intervals of the observations when site-specific model inputs were used. If generic parameter values were used, the model predictions sometimes deviated strongly from the observed data. This was especially true for pesticide degradation properties. The bromide simulations showed that preferential flow was not an important process for this field soil. A significant fraction of the applied ethoprophos disappeared by surface volatilization. The downward movement of this pesticide was slightly overestimated, due to not considering sorption kinetics. The depth-dependence of pesticide transformation was atypical: an important fraction of the applied bentazone was transformed under micro-aerobic to anaerobic conditions in the subsoil. © 1998 SCI     

塔里木沙漠公路沿线地下水空间变异性及分布规律研究

塔里木沙漠公路防护林生态工程是新疆防沙、治沙重大工程之一,就其建设长度和规模来讲,可谓世界之最。文中通过地下水位测量、地下水样水化学分析等数据,对防护林沿线的地下水空间变异性特征及地下水要素的空间分布规律进行了探讨,目的是为防护林带的正常生长提供理论依据和技术支撑。分析表明:在小于当前研究尺度下,影响地下水特征变异的过程作用较强。地下水埋深在整个尺度上具有恒定的变异,沿线区域北部的地下水埋深小于南部;地下水矿化度表现为中等的空间相关性,高矿化度水集中在沙漠北部;地下水pH值的空间相关性很弱,高值交替出现,最大值出现在沙漠中部位置。     

Detailing Köppen–Geiger climate zones at sub‐national to continental scale: a resource for pest risk analysis

The widely used Köppen–Geiger climate classification system can inform judgements of establishment during pest categorizations and systems of simplified pest risk assessment. Such processes allow national plant protection organizations to quickly identify plant pests of potential regulatory concern. Judging whether a pest can establish is a key factor in determining whether a pest satisfies the definition of a quarantine pest. Climate is often a significant factor influencing where species can establish. Here, we provide a resource that reports the Köppen–Geiger climate classification at a range of spatial scales from sub‐national to continental for the period 1986–2010 in an accessible table. The data is provided as a resource for pest risk analysis to inform and support rapid decision‐making. An online appendix is provided showing the number of grid cells in each of the 31 Köppen–Geiger climate types in 417 regions across the globe at country level or less. Thirteen climate types occur within the European Union (EU), the most common is ‘temperate oceanic’ occupying 48% of EU grid cells. Twenty‐four of 31 climate types occur within the EPPO region; the most common is ‘continental, uniform precipitation with cold summer’, occupying 35% of EPPO grid cells.     

计算毒理学在农药毒性预测、活性筛查及风险评估中的应用

农药在农业病虫草害的防控中起着重要作用, 但农药应用后其母体和转化产物在农产品和水体、土壤、空气等环境中的残留存在一定的生物活性或毒性风险。传统的农药活性和毒性的评估手段不仅耗时、耗力、耗成本, 且违背实验动物“3R”原则, 也难以快速准确预测种类繁多且不断增加的农药化学品对人体和生态健康的风险。计算毒理学为农药化合物的毒性预测、活性筛查及风险评估提供了新的研究手段。本文主要介绍计算毒理学的发展及其在农药毒性预测、活性筛查及风险评估中的应用现状, 以期为新时代背景下农药对人类健康及环境安全的风险评估提供新思路。该领域的研究对指导农药的安全生产、科学使用管理具有重要意义, 对生态系统的保护具有重要参考价值。     

Exposure risk assessment and evaluation of the best management practice for controlling pesticide runoff from paddy fields. Part 2: model simulation for the herbicide pretilachlor

BACKGROUND: Monitoring studies revealed high concentrations of pesticides in the drainage canal of paddy fields. It is important to have a way to predict these concentrations in different management scenarios as an assessment tool. A simulation model for predicting the pesticide concentration in a paddy block (PCPF‐B) was evaluated and then used to assess the effect of water management practices for controlling pesticide runoff from paddy fields. RESULTS: The PCPF‐B model achieved an acceptable performance. The model was applied to a constrained probabilistic approach using the Monte Carlo technique to evaluate the best management practices for reducing runoff of pretilachlor into the canal. The probabilistic model predictions using actual data of pesticide use and hydrological data in the canal showed that the water holding period (WHP) and the excess water storage depth (EWSD) effectively reduced the loss and concentration of pretilachlor from paddy fields to the drainage canal. The WHP also reduced the timespan of pesticide exposure in the drainage canal. CONCLUSIONS: It is recommended that: (1) the WHP be applied for as long as possible, but for at least 7 days, depending on the pesticide and field conditions; (2) an EWSD greater than 2 cm be maintained to store substantial rainfall in order to prevent paddy runoff, especially during the WHP. Copyright © 2010 Society of Chemical Industry     

Framework for defining pesticide maximum residue levels in feed: applications to cattle and sheep

BACKGROUND

Pesticide residues in animal feed can endanger animal health and compromise the safety of livestock products for human consumption. Even though policymakers such as the European Union and the World Health Organization have established maximum residue levels (MRLs) for pesticides in both human food and animal feed, there is no systematic management of pesticides in animal feed that considers the entire supply chain. In response, we propose a framework for defining consistent MRLs for pesticides in animal feed that assesses the impact of defined MRLs on upstream (e.g., MRLs in feed crops) and downstream (e.g., MRLs in livestock products) sectors of the livestock-product supply chain.

RESULTS

The MRLs determined for the selected pesticides in the feed of cattle and sheep as case study animals indicate that lipophilic pesticides tend to have lower MRLs than hydrophilic pesticides, primarily due to the relatively high toxicity and biotransfer factors of lipophilic pesticides. In addition, we observe that, primarily for lipophilic pesticides, upstream and downstream regulations are not aligned in terms of defining MRLs in feed using current MRLs in crops with relevance to feed and foods of animal origin.

CONCLUSION

Some of the current pesticide regulations in the livestock-product supply chain need to be re-evaluated to ensure that MRLs in the upstream sector (i.e., crops) do not result in unacceptable residues in the downstream sector (i.e., MRLs in livestock products affecting animal and human health). Finally, we provide recommendations for optimizing the derivation of MRLs in feed, including the evaluation of residue fate during feed and food manufacturing processes. © 2022 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.     

Identification of key climatic factors regulating the transport of pesticides in leaching and to tile drains

BACKGROUND: Key climatic factors influencing the transport of pesticides to drains and to depth were identified. Climatic characteristics such as the timing of rainfall in relation to pesticide application may be more critical than average annual temperature and rainfall. The fate of three pesticides was simulated in nine contrasting soil types for two seasons, five application dates and six synthetic weather data series using the MACRO model, and predicted cumulative pesticide loads were analysed using statistical methods. RESULTS: Classification trees and Pearson correlations indicated that simulated losses in excess of 75th percentile values (0.046 mg m(-2) for leaching, 0.042 mg m(-2) for drainage) generally occurred with large rainfall events following autumn application on clay soils, for both leaching and drainage scenarios. The amount and timing of winter rainfall were important factors, whatever the application period, and these interacted strongly with soil texture and pesticide mobility and persistence. Winter rainfall primarily influenced losses of less mobile and more persistent compounds, while short-term rainfall and temperature controlled leaching of the more mobile pesticides. CONCLUSIONS: Numerous climatic characteristics influenced pesticide loss, including the amount of precipitation as well as the timing of rainfall and extreme events in relation to application date. Information regarding the relative influence of the climatic characteristics evaluated here can support the development of a climatic zonation for European-scale risk assessment for pesticide fate.     

Sorption, degradation and leaching of the fungicide iprodione in a golf green under Scandinavian conditions: measurements, modelling and risk assessment

In cold climates, fungicides are used on golf greens to prevent snow mould causing serious damage to the turf. However, fungicide residues have been detected in runoff from golf courses, which may lead to restrictions on use. There is therefore an urgent need to improve understanding of the processes affecting leaching of fungicides from turfgrass systems to allow identification of green construction and management practices that minimize environmental impacts. In this study we monitored the leaching of the fungicide iprodione in a putting green. Sorption and degradation of iprodione was measured in batch and incubation experiments, and the simulation model MACRO was used as a risk assessment tool. Degradation of iprodione was bi-phasic, with a rapid initial phase (half-life 17 h) caused by enhanced biodegradation. Degradation rates slowed considerably after 5 days, with half-lives of up to 38 days. Sorption of iprodione was linear, with a K(oc) value of ca 400 cm(3) g(-1). MACRO reasonably accurately matched measured drainflows and concentrations of iprodione in soil and drainflow. However, peak concentrations in drainage were underestimated, which was attributed to preferential finger flow due to water repellency. The results also showed the importance of the organic matter content in the green root zone in reducing leaching. It was concluded that, with 'reasonable worst-case' use, losses of iprodione from greens can occur at concentrations exceeding water quality limits for aquatic ecosystems. Snow mould problems should be tackled by adopting green root zone mixes that minimize leaching and 'best management practices' that would avoid the need for intensive prophylactic use of fungicides.