Roles of learning theory and ethology in equitation

By definition, ethology is primarily the scientific study of animal behavior, especially as it occurs in a natural environment; applied ethology being the study of animal behavior in the human domain. The terms equine ethology and ethological training are becoming commonplace in the equestrian domain, yet they seem to be used with a conspicuous lack of clarity and with no mention of learning theory. Most of what we do to train horses runs counter to their innate preferences. This article summarizes the ethological challenges encountered by working horses and considers the merits and limitations of ethological solutions. It also questions the use of terms such as “alpha” and “leader” and examines aspects of learning theory, equine cognition, and ethology as applied to horse training and clinical behavior modification. We propose 7 training principles that optimally account for the horse’s ethological and learning abilities and maintain maximal responsivity in the trained horse. These principles can be summarized as: (1) use learning theory appropriately; (2) train easy-to-discriminate signals; (3) train and subsequently elicit responses singularly; (4) train only one response per signal; (5) train all responses to be initiated and subsequently completed within a consistent structure; (6) train persistence of current operantly conditioned responses; and (7) avoid and disassociate flight responses. Adherence to these principles and incorporating them into all horse training methodologies should accelerate training success, reduce behavioral wastage of horses, and improve safety for both humans and horses.     

Investigating equine ingestive, maternal, and sexual behavior in the field and in the laboratory.

Some of the techniques that may be used to study social, reproductive, and ingestive behavior in horses are described in this paper. One of the aspects of equine social behavior is the dominance hierarchy or patterns of agonistic behavior. Paired or group feeding from a single food source may be used to determine dominance hierarchies quickly. Focal animal studies of undisturbed groups of horses may also be used; this method takes longer, but may reveal affiliative as well as agonistic relationships among the horses. Reproductive behavior includes flehmen, the functional significance of which can be determined using combinations of field observations of harem groups and laboratory studies of stallions exposed to female urine or feces in the absence of the donor mare. Ingestive behavior may include food, salt, or water intake. Direct and indirect measurements of intake can be made and used to answer questions regarding the ability of horses to control their energy intake when the diet is diluted, the effect of feral equids on the ecology of an area, and the abilities of horses to compensate for dehydration and hypovolemia.     

Animal behavior and animal welfare

The value of behavioral techniques in assessing animal welfare, and in particular assessing the psychological well being of animals, is reviewed. Using cats and horses as examples, 3 behavioral methods are presented: (1) comparison of behavior patterns and time budgets; (2) choice tests; and (3) operant conditioning. The behaviors of intact and declawed cats were compared in order to determine if declawing led to behavioral problems or to a change in personality. Apparently it did not. The behavior of free ranging horses was compared with that of stabled horses. Using two-choice preference tests, the preference of horses for visual contact with other horses and the preference for bedding were determined. Horses show no significant preference for locations from which they can make visual contact with other horses, but they do prefer bedding, especially when lying down. Horses will perform an operant response in order to obtain light in a darkened barn or heat in an outside shed. These same techniques can be used to answer a variety of questions about an animal's motivation for a particular attribute of its environment.     

The X files: Xenophon re-examined through the lens of equitation science

This article reviews, through the lens of equitation science, one of the oldest known texts on horsemanship, written by Xenophon, general and horsemaster from ancient Greece. It identifies many instances in which Xenophon's recommendations align with current knowledge about equine ethology and learning theory, although, as one might expect, the explanations for their effectiveness are sometimes lacking. Xenophon counsels against disciplining a horse in anger and the use of relentless rein tension but makes a series of flawed assumptions about contiguity in instrumental conditioning. Because he is held up as the classical master and, therefore, somehow beyond reproach, it is important to understand how Xenophon's work exemplifies many of the pitfalls in thinking that persist in contemporary training. For example, his treatise imbues horses with powers of reasoning that have yet to be demonstrated in any empirical studies. In doing so, it encourages the reader to regard unwelcome behavior as disobedience and, predictably, goes on to justify punishment. The review explores how Xenophon aligns with and counters the recently published principles of ethical horse training. As such, it offers a framework for critiquing all horse-training dogmas.     

Natural balance trimming and shoeing: its theory and application.

The principles and techniques of natural balance trimming and shoeing are designed to optimize the efficiency and function of the foot. The basic guidelines have evolved in part from wild horse hoof imprint studies done in 1986 through 1987 and first presented in 1995. Further research has contributed to these principles and guidelines to make them applicable to domestic horses.     

Undesired behaviour in horses: A review of their development,prevention, management and association with welfare

Undesired behaviours are a common problem amongst leisure and sporting horses in the UK and have a significant impact on the work of equine practitioners. In most cases, behaviours considered aberrant by owners are normal responses for their horses. Behaviours perceived as ‘naughtiness’ may in fact signify direct actions to avoid pain‐ or fear‐inducing stimuli. Examples that practitioners might deal with include trailer loading problems, avoidance of having saddlery equipment applied or reluctance to leave the yard. Even where no evidence of physical problems or pain can be detected, avoidance behaviours may reflect learnt responses that previously led to success in evading unpleasant consequences. Because owners often misunderstand the reason for such behaviours to develop in their horses, attempts at resolution often involve suppression or punishment based approaches. Although repeated subjugation of undesirable responses may ultimately appear to resolve the overt behavioural problem in some cases, in many others it can lead to a worsening of the problem, the development of alternative avoidance strategies or the horse learning that escaping the source of its pain or anxiety is impossible and ceasing to respond. Some horses develop abnormal or repetitive behaviours, which are not in the ‘normal’ behavioural repertoire. These stereotypic behaviours, sometimes termed ‘vices’, can indicate strategies to cope with a suboptimal environment. Indeed, their performance may serve to improve the situation for the animal. Attempts to suppress or prevent horses showing stereotypies, therefore, will generally exacerbate the underlying welfare problem. When dealing with either stereotypies or avoidance behaviours, it is important to recognise the role of learning in their development and maintenance. Resolution involves both understanding the underlying motivation for showing the behaviour and how it has become reinforced and established over time, for each individual case. The use of environmental change and/or behavioural modification techniques that are both successful and welfare compatible, are important in dealing with undesired behaviour in horses and selection of suitable professionals for referral an important responsibility for the equine practitioner.     

Ethical equitation: Capping the price horses pay for human glory

Ethical equitation is nowadays coming into sharp focus in equestrian culture. Concerns surround the ethics of sports based on controlling an animal's locomotory responses and in using animals such as horses in sport in general. Anthropomorphically labeled misinterpretations of the responses of trained horses, such as the use of terms like “mad,” “lazy,” “keen,” and “stubborn,” may be detrimental to optimal equine welfare. Similarly, the concept of the “equine athlete” may imply an ill-informed teleological explanation of the motives of the horse in sport. Despite problems in identifying the happy horse, rewarding optimal welfare and the absence of critical stress responses in performance horses is an important step forward.Horse racing is the source of many welfare concerns because of the use of the whip and the physical dangers to horses involved in hurdle racing and steeplechasing. The use of the whip in racing is controversial and, because it does not always lead to acceleration, problematic. There is a pressing need for learning theory to be adopted in all equestrian pursuits, because such an approach would obviate the need for whips, punishment, and the use of fear in escape learning. In other disciplines, practices such as hyperflexion and soring have a significant potential to compromise the welfare of the horse in sport.The future of horse sports should involve abandoning the mandatory use of primitive control devices, such as curb bits, that have a real potential to cause harm. International governing bodies and national equestrian federations ought to proceed with removing any requirements to use curb bits and judges should reward riders who use the most humane control devices at the higher levels of competition.Finally, horse breeding should also be scrutinized under an ethical spotlight. Selecting horses on the basis of temperament has inherent risks, including lowered motivation of riders and trainers to refine their training skill set, which may also lead to significant wastage. Pure breeding risks the health and welfare of horses owing to increases in homozygous deleterious genes expressing themselves.     

Interactive computerized learning program exposes veterinary students to challenging international animal-health problems

This article describes a computerized case-based CD-ROM (CD) on international animal health that was developed to give veterinary students an opportunity to "virtually" work alongside veterinarians and other veterinary students as they try to solve challenging disease problems relating to tuberculosis in South African wildlife, bovine abortion in Mexico, and neurologic disease in horses in Rapa Nui, Chile. Each of the three case modules presents, in a highly interactive format, a problem or mystery that must be solved by the learner. As well as acquiring information via video clips and text about the specific health problem, learners obtain information about the different countries, animal-management practices, diagnostic methods, related disease-control issues, economic factors, and the opinions of local experts. After assimilating this information, the learner must define the problem and formulate an action plan or make a recommendation or diagnosis. The computerized program invokes three principles of adult education: active learning, learner-centered education, and experiential learning. A medium that invokes these principles is a potentially efficient learning tool and template for developing other case-based problem-solving computerized programs. The program is accessible on the World Wide Web at . A broadband Internet connection is recommended, since the modules make extensive use of embedded video and audio clips. Information on how to obtain the CD is also provided.     

The strengths of statistical techniques in identifying patterns underlying apparently random behavioral problems in horses

The inability of owners to recognize patterns behind the seemingly disparate or random behavior problems expressed by their horse has major welfare implications. Principal components analysis has been successfully used to explore relationships between individual behavior problems in dogs, and it may be a valuable tool in recognizing relationships between problem behaviors in horses. Here, we report how principal components analysis has been used to identify relationships underlying individual behavior problems in horses using data generated from a large-scale Internet survey of United Kingdom leisure horses. Horse-level data on the performance of 44 individual behavior problems, encompassing stable-related and handling behavior problems, prefeeding behavior problems, and ridden behavior problems, were reduced to 12 behavior problem components. Each component was composed of groups of behavior problems that may share a common underlying etiology. These findings demonstrate the value of statistical techniques in identifying associations between apparently random behavior problems. Recognizing relationships between individual problems may prompt owners to take earlier action to resolve them, thereby improving their horse’s welfare.     

The advent of equitation science

The lengthy association of humans with horses has established traditional equestrian techniques that have served military and transport needs well. Although effective, these techniques have by-passed the research findings of modern psychologists, who developed the fundamentals of learning theory. That said, the pools of equestrian debate are far from stagnant. The latest wave of horse whisperers has offered some refinements and some novel interpretations of the motivation of horses undergoing training. Additionally, the Fédération Equestre Internationale (FEI) has introduced the concept of the 'happy equine athlete' and, in the light of the hyperflexion (Rollkür) debate, recently examined the possible effects of some novel dressage modalities on equine 'happiness'. However, many still question the welfare of the ridden horse since it is largely trained using negative reinforcement, has to respond to pressure-based signals and is seldom asked to work for positive rewards. Science holds tremendous promise for removing emotiveness from the horse-riding welfare debate by establishing how much rein tension is too much; how much contact is neutral; how contact can be measured; how discomfort can be measured; how pain can be measured; and how learned helplessness manifests in horses. These are some of the topics addressed by equitation science, an emerging discipline that combines learning theory, physics and ethology to examine the salience and efficacy of horse-training techniques.     

Transpalpebral enucleation using a chain écraseur

This study was undertaken to describe the technique, complications and outcome of the use of a chain écraseur for transpalpebral enucleation in horses under general anaesthesia. We report its use in 53 horses, reviewing the subject details, reasons for enucleation, surgical technique, intra‐ and post operative complications, and long‐term outcome. Intraoperative complications included mild to moderate bleeding in 4 horses. Post operative complications included mild periorbital post operative swelling in one horse, transient head tilt in one horse and severe enterocolitis, which resulted in euthanasia in one horse; another 2 horses were subjected to euthanasia after long bone fractures that occurred during recovery from general anaesthesia and 2 horses had the prosthesis removed as a result of inflammatory reaction or infection. Long‐term outcome was available for 38 horses, 25 of which returned to their previous activities and 13 were retired. Twelve horses were lost for follow‐up. Transpalpebral enucleation using a chain écraseur is a feasible alternative to traditional enucleation techniques that can provide adequate haemostasis during transection of the optic pedicle when used properly.     

Use of multifrequency bioelectrical impedance analysis for estimation of total body water and extracellular and intracellular fluid volumes in horses

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the use of multifrequency bioelectrical impedance analysis (MF-BIA) for estimating total body water (TBW), extracellular fluid volume (ECFV), and intracellular fluid volume (ICFV) in horses. ANIMALS: 9 healthy mares. PROCEDURE: TBW and ECFV were measured by use of deuterium oxide and sodium bromide dilution techniques, respectively. Intracellular fluid volume was calculated as the difference between TBW and ECFV. Concurrently, MF-BIA recordings were obtained by use of 4 anatomic electrode positions and 3 measurements of length. Models for MF-BIA data were created for all combinations of length and anatomic electrode position. Models were evaluated to determine the position-length configuration that provided the most consistent estimates of TBW, ECFV, and ICFV, compared with values determined by use of the dilution techniques. RESULTS: Positioning electrodes over the ipsilateral carpus and tarsus and use of height at the tuber sacrale for length provided the closest estimate between values for TBW, ECFV, and ICFV predicted by use of MF-BIA and measured values obtained by dilutional techniques. This model had the narrowest 95% limits of agreement. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: MF-BIA techniques have been used to predict changes in TBW, ECFV, and ICFV in healthy and diseased humans. Results reported in this study provide an equine-specific model to serve as the basis for further evaluation of MF-BIA in horses with altered fluid states. The MF-BIA techniques have a number of potential applications for use in horses, including evaluation of exercise physiology, pharmacologic studies, and critical-care management.     

An Introduction to Positive Reinforcement Training and Its Benefits

Training birds with positive reinforcement involves focusing on kind and gentle methods to create behavior. This article explores some of the basic strategies and principles used to train birds with positive reinforcement based on the science of applied behavior analysis. These methods can be used to train reliable, repeatable, consistent voluntary presentation of behaviors that facilitate optimum avian care without the use of aversive strategies that promote domination and control. More importantly, these principles can be used to solve behavior problems and also train medically important behaviors, including voluntary nail trims, vaccinations, and blood sampling, as evidenced by successful training completed in several zoos in the United States. By learning the application of positive reinforcement training strategies, avian enthusiasts can revolutionize care and management practices for companion parrots.     

Description of a technique for orthograde endodontic treatment of equine cheek teeth with apical infections

An orthograde endodontic method, similar to that used in human dentistry, is described for use on endodontically diseased permanent cheek teeth in horses. The technique has been adapted to meet the anatomical and physiological differences between hypsodont and brachyodont teeth and is performed in sedated horses. The techniques of debriding the pulp cavity and use of dental materials which fulfil the requirements for equine teeth are presented here. The results of this technique appear to be promising but have yet to be evaluated in a peer‐reviewed study. By using orthograde endodontic therapy on sedated horses it is now possible to save endodontically diseased permanent cheek teeth.     

Effect of prepubertal versus postpubertal castration on sexual and aggressive behavior in male horses

Males horses castrated prepubertally occasionally display stallion-like sexual and aggressive behavior as adults. A retrospective survey of 140 horse owners was undertaken to compare the effectiveness of prepubertal versus postpubertal castration on objectionable sexual and aggressive behavior. Of 94 geldings that had been castrated prepubertally (before 2 years of age), 20% to 30% displayed stallion-like sexual behavior and aggression toward horses, and 5% were aggressive toward people in a stallion-like manner. This occurrence of problem behavior was not significantly different from the occurrence of these behavioral patterns in 46 geldings that had been castrated as stallions (over 3 years of age). When castration was examined as a therapeutic measure to eliminate sexual and aggressive behavior in stallions in which the behavior had become objectionable, it was found that the operation was effective on sexual behavior and aggression toward people in 60% to 70% of horses and on aggression toward horses in 40% of horses.     

Recent advances in equine abdominal surgery

Laparoscopy is a minimally invasive procedure that has applications as a diagnostic, therapeutic and prognostic technique. Specialized equipment is necessary to perform equine laparoscopy, and there is a large range of instruments, both disposable and non-disposable available. Laparoscopic procedures described include ovariectomy, cryptorchidectomy, adhesiolysis and herniorrhaphy. Laparoscopy can be performed in a standing or dorsally recumbent position, depending on surgeon preference, patient status and the procedure to be performed. Stapling equipment is frequently used in gastrointestinal surgery in horses. Advantages include decreased surgical time and a decrease in the risk of contamination. Stapling equipment is often used in creating anastomoses, both in the large and small intestines, as well as in vessel ligation. New surgical techniques intended to decrease adhesion formation include the use of carboxymethylcellulose and bioresorbable patches. Indwelling abdominal drains can be used for peritoneal lavage following surgery and also appear to decrease the risk of adhesion formation. Improvements in post-operative care, including the treatment of post-operative ileus and endotoxaemia can significantly improve the outcome of horses that have undergone surgery for abdominal disorders. Recommendations for the use of prokinetic agents in horses with ileus vary widely. Prokinetic agents include local anaesthetics, macrolide antimicrobials, cholinergic agonists and dopamine antagonists. Endotoxaemia is common in horses following surgery for gastrointestinal disorders. The antibiotic polymyxin B binds to the circulating endotoxin molecule, decreasing its half-life in the intra-vascular space and reducing associated inflammation. This drug appears to be an effective and affordable treatment option for horses with endotoxaemia. The use of specific cyclooxygenase inhibitors in veterinary medicine have been studied recently. Selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors may provide comparable anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties to the non-selective non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. These drugs appear to have similar clinical effectiveness and will hopefully minimize deleterious side effects. The optimal healing of ventral midline incisions in horses is related to many factors including appropriate suture patterns and bite size, in addition to appropriate post-operative exercise recommendations. Recent advances in surgical techniques and post-operative care should decrease the morbidity and mortality associated with abdominal surgery. This article provides an overview of some of these advances.     

Transcranial magnetic stimulation: review of the technique,basic principles and applications

Transcranial magnetic stimulation is rapidly developing as a powerful, non-invasive tool for studying the descending motor tracts in humans. The applications of the test in animals are for the moment restricted to small animals. However, this non-invasive, sensitive and painless technique appears promising as a test of motor tract function in horses where the neurological examination is mainly restricted to clinical evaluation and some ancillary tests, such as radiography, cerebrospinal fluid analysis and electromyography. In this review, we want to discuss the history, basic principles, technique and applications of transcranial magnetic stimulation in humans and small animals and indicate the possibilities for its use in horses. Since the great portion of this review is based on human studies, it is worthwhile to mention that the reports being described are from humans unless otherwise specified.