Enhancing urban nature and place-making in social housing through community gardening

There is a growing body of literature examining the multifaceted benefits of community gardens for environmental and social wellbeing. While there are studies examining the increase of grassroots urban gardening initiatives in low income and vulnerable communities, there remains a need for research that explores the lived experiences of individuals in social housing communities with urban nature and community gardens. Individuals living in urban social housing may experience inequalities in access to green infrastructure both within their housing estates as well as the surrounding community. For the past two decades, the Community Greening program at the Royal Botanic Garden Sydney, Australia, has implemented outreach initiatives to support the development and maintenance of community gardens in social housing communities in New South Wales. This article presents the findings from a study conducted with participants at six new community gardens built in social housing communities, focusing specifically on focus group interviews with residents and staff questionnaires to examine the perceived impact of the Community Greening program. The participants’ narratives highlight program outcomes across the key themes of community gardens as sites for knowledge generation and connection to nature, sense of community, and improving residents' sense of pride and public perceptions of public housing. The findings suggest that community gardens enhance green infrastructure in social housing estates and their broader urban locales by improving access to green space and promoting place-making in social housing contexts. We conclude with a discussion of the recommendations and lessons learned that may help to inform future policies and practices when setting priorities that promote social and environmental sustainability in social housing.     

Assessing the potential of strategic green roof implementation for green infrastructure: Insights from Sumida ward,Tokyo

Urban green spaces, and green infrastructure more generally, provide multiple benefits that can enhance urban livability and sustainability. These range from the mitigation of air pollution and urban heat island (UHI) effect, to multi-dimensional benefits to human wellbeing and biodiversity. However, the expansion of urban green spaces is not always feasible in many cities. In such urban contexts, there have been proposals to utilize rooftops as green roofs in order to gain some of these benefits. This study spatially identifies areas where roofs have the potential to provide different types of benefits associated with urban green spaces if they are retrofitted with green roofs. Through a GIS-based approach we catalogue available roof space in Sumida ward in Tokyo for green roof implementation, and subsequenlty evaluate the potential of each roof patch to offer four types of benefits if retrofitted with a green roof, namely UHI effect mitigation, air pollution mitigation, and benefits to subjective wellbeing and biodiversity. Approximately 25% of the total roof surface in Sumida ward can potentially be used for green roof implementation. Furthermore, about 5.2% and 59% of this area has a respectively high and moderate potential to provide all four benefits if retrofitted with green roofs. This could increase the extent of green spaces by 10% and 120% respectively across the Sumida ward. In this sense, green roofs can become a major element of green infrastructure with ripple positive effects for urban livability and sustainability through the provision of UHI effect and air pollution mitigation, and benefits to subjective wellbeing and biodiversity.     

Urban green spaces and sustainability: Exploring the ecosystem services and disservices of grassy lawns versus floral meadows

Urban green spaces provide important ecological, environmental, and cultural benefits, including biodiversity conservation and human wellbeing. However, a significant portion of urban green space is currently managed as highly manicured grassy lawns that provide limited ecosystem services. Managing urban green spaces as diverse meadows can have a multitude of ecosystem benefits such as biodiversity conservation, stormwater infiltration, and aesthetics. Relatively little is known about the range of ecosystem services or disservices in managing urban green spaces as lawns versus meadows. In this paper, we separately characterize three major categories of ecosystem services and disservices (provisioning, regulation and maintenance, and cultural) delivered by urban lawns and meadows while highlighting several trade-offs and synergies associated with urban lawn and meadow management strategies. Additionally, we suggest specific research priorities to better evaluate ecosystem services and disservices across these urban green spaces. Understanding ecological, environmental, and cultural trade-offs and synergies of managing different urban green spaces is key to maintaining multiple ecosystem services in urban environments.     

Challenges of urban green space management in the face of using inadequate data

Effective urban planning, and urban green space management in particular, require proper data on urban green spaces. The potential of urban green spaces to provide benefits to urban inhabitants (ecosystem services) depends on whether they are managed as a comprehensive system of urban green infrastructure, or as isolated islands falling under the responsibility of different stakeholders. Meanwhile, different urban green space datasets are based on different definitions, data sources, sampling techniques, time periods and scales, which poses important challenges to urban green infrastructure planning, management and research. Using the case study of Lodz, the third largest city in Poland, and an additional analysis of 17 other Polish cities, we compare data from five publicly available sources: 1) public statistics, 2) the national land surveying agency, 3) satellite imagery (Landsat data), 4) the Urban Atlas, 5) the Open Street Map. The results reveal large differences in the total amount of urban green spaces in the cities as depicted in different datasets. In Lodz, the narrowly interpreted public statistics data, which are aspatial, suggest that green spaces account for only 12.8% of city area, while the most comprehensive dataset from the national land surveying agency reveals the figure of 61.2%. The former dataset, which excludes many types of green spaces (such as arable land, private and informal green spaces), is still the most commonly used. The analysis of the 17 other cities confirms the same pattern. This results in broader institutional failures related to urban green infrastructure planning, management, and research, including a lack of awareness of green space quality (e.g. connectivity) and benefits (ecosystem services), and the related political disregard for urban green spaces. Our comparison suggests that a better understanding of green space data sources is necessary in urban planning, and especially when planning urban green infrastructure.     

The multifunctionality concept in urban green infrastructure planning: A systematic literature review

Urban green infrastructure is critical for providing a wide range of ecosystem goods and services that benefit the urban population. Past studies have suggested that multifunctionality concerning urban infrastructure services and functions is a prerequisite for targeting effective and impactful urban green infrastructure. Moreover, urban green infrastructure with multiple functions can offer socio-economic and environmental benefits. However, there has been a knowledge gap in the planning literature to elaborate multiple ecosystem functions in urban green infrastructure. In particular, existing methods and approaches are lacking for quantifying and monitoring such ecological services and biodiversity in urban green infrastructures at different spatial scales. Therefore, this research aims to review studies focusing on the multifunctionality concept in urban green infrastructure planning. The study highlights the current status and knowledge gaps through a systematic review. Our analysis revealed that current studies on green infrastructure multifunctionality have focused on five main themes: 1) planning methods for urban green infrastructure, 2) assessment approaches of urban green infrastructure, 3) ecosystem services and their benefits, 4) sustainability and climate adaptation, and 5) urban agriculture. The study found that the five themes are somewhat connected to each other. The study has revealed a knowledge gap regarding incorporating multifunctional green infrastructure in the planning principle. The results suggest at least five critical elements to ensure multiple functions in urban infrastructure. The elements are spatial distribution, optimal distance, integrated network, accessibility, and public participation and engagement. The study further recommends research directions for future analysis on green infrastructure multifunctionality that are critical for urban planning.     

‘Letting my mind run wild’: Exploring the role of individual engagement in nature experiences

Mindfulness and mind wandering are among distinct forms of cognitive engagement proposed to occur during nature experiences. Little is known however about how these forms of engagement support psychological benefits of urban nature experiences, and under what environmental and personal circumstances. We aimed to explore these associations through interviewing 20 individuals after they had spent time in an urban green space on a work break. Interviews examined different aspects of their experience, including how they cognitively engaged during that time. We used a framework approach to thematically analyse interviews, allowing us to identify links between key experiential categories such as form of engagement and environmental context. As a result, we describe five common forms of engagement during urban nature experiences: heightened sensory engagement, allowing the mind to wander, mindful engagement, negative judgement of the experience, and acceptance of experience. Further, we identified associations between forms of engagement, the contextual attributes of the experience, and psychological outcomes. For instance, participants who reported mind wandering during the experience often explained this as a response to work-related stress and subsequently reported feeling a sense of psychological distance from work. By examining such associations in the current study, we contribute insights into the subjective experience of engagement in urban nature and demonstrate the value of considering individual engagement alongside other key attributes of urban nature experiences.     

The effect of spontaneous wild vegetation on landscape preferences in urban green spaces

The use of spontaneous wild vegetation (SWV) in the plans for urban greening in many cities is beginning to be discussed. However, little is known about how it is perceived and valued by citizens. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of SWV on landscape preferences. An online questionnaire was designed and given to a sample of 708 people in Latin America. The results show that they prefer more formal green spaces to those dominated by SWV. Once informed of the benefits that SWV brings to the city, preferences change, with wild vegetation spaces being more appreciated than formal ones. However, this pattern of preferences changes after 30 days. Preferences return to their initial point, with formal green spaces being appreciated again over wild spaces. The analyses show the importance of environmental education in urban greening strategies to communicate clearly, repeatedly and participatively the benefits of using SWV in public green spaces.     

Environmental inequities in terms of different types of urban greenery in Hartford,Connecticut

Urban greenery has long been recognized as an important component of urban ecosystem and provides many benefits to urban residents. However, different types of urban greenery provide different kinds of natural experiences to people. In this study, green metrics calculated based on multisource spatial datasets were used to quantify the spatial distribution of different types of urban greenery in Hartford, Connecticut. Geo-tagged Google Street View images, which capture the profile view of cityscape, were used to quantify street greenery by considering the time information. Land cover map and urban parks map were used to measure residential yard greenery and proximity to urban parks, respectively. We analyzed the associations of the calculated green metrics with socio-economic variables derived from census data. Statistical results show that: (1) people with higher income tend to live in neighborhoods with more street greenery; (2) census block groups with a higher proportion of owner-occupied units tend to have more yard vegetation and yard tree/shrub coverage; (3) Hispanics tend to live in block groups that have less yard vegetation but African Americans mostly live in block groups with more yard greenery; and (4) there are no significant environmental disparities among racial/ethnic groups in terms of proximity to urban parks. In general, this study provides an insight into the environments of urban residents in terms of urban greenery, and a valuable reference data for urban planning.     

A “magic teleportation machine”: Ethnically diverse green space users derive similar cultural ecosystem benefits from urban nature

Green spaces are vital to the wellbeing of urban communities, largely due to the many Cultural Ecosystem Benefits (CEB) that nature contributes to outdoor recreation experiences (e.g., relaxation, inspiration, spiritual enrichment). To ensure equity in the distribution of CEB, however, we require a better understanding of how they relate to ethnicity. Through 100 in-situ semi-structured interviews with green space users in the Lee Valley Regional Park, London, UK, this research explored variation in outdoor recreational CEB based on i) ethnicity and ii) green space activity and attribute preferences. We compared green space preferences and CEB of Black, Asian and minority ethnic (BAME) and white users of two distinct types of urban green space: parks and more biodiverse Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs). Both white and BAME visitors to parks prioritized games/sports and built features whereas visitors to SSSIs more often undertook wildlife viewing and prioritized natural features. However, we found that white and BAME users of both types of urban green space derived similar CEB. Peace and relaxation were primary among these benefits, a result of both nature interaction and its contrast to the urban environment. These results demonstrate that nature does not have to be the focal point of outdoor recreation to contribute to wellbeing; rather, even as a backdrop to sports and cultural activities, nature provides similar benefits to green space users. To promote use of green space and foster intercultural understanding, we recommend integrating these shared benefits obtained from nature within marketing and engagement strategies. Future research is needed to explore CEB variation within and among distinct ethnic communities to fully capture the diversity of lived experiences.     

Public green spaces and human wellbeing: Mapping the spatial inequity and mismatching status of public green space in the Central City of Shanghai

Public green spaces are fundamental and indispensable to urban settlements, given the diverse social, economic and environmental benefits that they can provide. However, the absence of knowledge regarding the allocation and access status quo consistently hinders the suitability and rationality of follow-up green space planning, which could eventually impair the livability and sustainability of cities. This study evaluates disparities in access to public green space for urban residents and the spatial mismatches among public green space provision, residents’ visits and the demands of socially vulnerable groups within the Central City of Shanghai. The results show that disparities in public green space accessibility exist pertaining to social status and household composition status. Sub-districts with higher social status or larger proportions of family households composed by children and married inhabitants tend to have better public green space access. In contrast, sub-districts with larger proportions of aged or unemployed populations unexpectedly show worse public green space access. To a certain degree, this reduced access can be considered to be an environmental injustice. Additionally, the mismatches among public green space provision, residents’ visits and the demands of socially vulnerable groups are observed to vary in space, indicating potential problems of resource shortage, supply-demand mismatch, underuse and congestion. The findings could offer urban planners and policy-makers insights into optimizing public green space resources and equitably providing proximal public green space to urban residents, especially vulnerable groups, such as children, the elderly and the unemployed.     

Street trees as cultural elements in the city: Understanding how perception affects ecosystem services management in Porto,Portugal

Processes shaping urban ecosystems reflect and influence the cultural context in which they emerge, bearing implications for ecosystem services (ES) planning and management. Investigating the perception of benefits and losses / costs delivered by a specific service providing unit (SPU) can generate objective orientations suitable for urban planning and management deeply embedded in the social-ecological systems where they occur, because the realization of ES into benefits and losses / costs is mediated by specific beneficiaries and reflects their characteristics, information and use of ecosystems. Street trees are a particularly relevant SPU in many densely built Southern-European cities due to the difficulty in implementing new sizeable green areas. In this study, a questionnaire was developed and applied in Porto to investigate how benefits (cultural, regulating and economic) and losses / costs caused by street trees are perceived by citizens and influenced by a set of socioeconomic variables (N = 819 people aged 18 years or older), and parametric statistical tests were used to analyze the effect of gender, age and school level. Results evidenced that people in Porto valued more environmental benefits (particularly air quality improvement) than cultural ones. School level was the variable accounting for more differences, underlining a tendency in people with lower level of academic education to value less the benefits provided by street trees in Porto and attribute more importance to losses and damages, compared to people who attended university or had higher academic degree. Age also held considerable differences in mean responses, with older people showing more concern towards losses and costs, while gender influenced perception of cultural benefits, which were more important for women than for men. The findings of the research are discussed concerning implications for environmental justice, planning and management of urban ecosystems.     

Citizens’ use of public urban green spaces at the time of the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy

Since early 2020, Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) has spread rapidly, quickly becoming a global pandemic. To counter the COVID-19 outbreak, national governments have issued different measures and restrictions, forcing citizens to adapt to a whole new lifestyle. These restrictions have impacted on the use of green spaces by citizens owing to many factors: more available free time, increased flexibility in the work environment, and a need to relax in Nature to relieve anxiety and stress. Urban green spaces provide many benefits for the physical and psychological well-being of citizens (e.g., habitat conservation, pollution control, recreational and leisure opportunities). To understand if citizens’ habits have changed due to the COVID-19 restrictions, this study provides insights from a web-based survey monitoring the use of such spaces before and during the COVID-19 lockdowns in Italy. A web-based questionnaire was conducted via “Facebook Messenger” and “WhatsApp” at the end of the second wave of COVID-19 (May–June 2021). Data collection having been concluded, 1075 completed questionnaires were collected and processed. The results show that while many reduced their weekly frequentation of green areas (−16.5%), the number of people frequenting green areas near their home every day increased (+7.7%). Two main groups of people were identified: the first, those who intensified their visits to green areas being those who desired to spend time in contact with Nature; the second, those who were reluctant to visit green areas for fear of being infected. The results also show most of the respondents felt urban green areas were either very important (82.1%) or important (14.4%). Overall, the results reveal that COVID-19 induced a positive perception of the benefits provided by urban green areas, with a consequent greater use of them, which seems destined to last even once the public health emergency has passed.     

The green walk—An analysis for evaluating the accessibility of urban green spaces

The importance of urban green spaces in providing ecosystem services to the population is increasingly being recognised by scientists, policy makers and the general public. Across cities, urban planners are seeking to reconcile the location of urban green spaces and accessibility of the public. The main aim of our paper is to assess the accessibility of urban green spaces and to identify perceived benefits along the travel route to urban green spaces, starting from a selected case study in Romania. We started from a spatial analysis of a service area for an urban park in Bucharest (Tineretului). With the help of network analyst in ArcGis Pro we established the boundaries of the service area (using urban park boundaries, street network, traffic restrictions) and applied two methods of travel to the park (walking and cycling). We applied a survey to 202 respondents, collecting information on the routes and methods of reaching the park, as well as the perceived benefits and disservices of selecting the preferred method and route. The main results revealed different patterns delimited by a number of criteria: age (elder population preferred public transport and shaded routes), income (people with higher incomes selected travelling by car and accessing elements with parking facilities), group structure (people with children selected routes perceived as safe). This type of analyses can represent useful instruments for urban planners in developing and managing urban green spaces in close relation with neighbouring spaces and facilities.     

Health-related elements in green space branding in Hong Kong

A green city image of urban green spaces can provide positive benefits such as a stronger local identity, better socio-cultural ecosystem services, and ultimately the creation of a green city brand that attracts tourism and investment. This paper studies how urban green spaces can become a green brand that encompasses health-related elements. The health-related elements form part of the Green Brand Hexagon (GBH), as proposed in previous studies, and are tested with a sample of Hong Kong citizens (n = 301). The empirical results confirm the interrelation between these attributes and other GBH elements. The interrelation reveals a moderate association between the health-related elements and other green brand elements through regression model formulation. The findings suggest an extension of the health promotion value of the green spaces to the brand elements, focusing on the quality and the landscape aesthetic function of urban green spaces. While the effort of the public sector is highly recognized by the citizens, there should be an opportunity to thematize and brand the green city attributes to the public so that some of the problems of environmental gentrification and socio-environmental disconnection can be alleviated.     

Private trees contribute uniquely to urban forest diversity,structure and service-based traits

The urban forest provides our communities with a host of benefits through the delivery of ecosystem services. To properly quantify and sustain these benefits, we require a strong baseline understanding of forest structure and diversity. To date, fine-scale work considering urban forest diversity and ecosystem services has often been limited to trees on public land, considering only one or two green space types. However, the governance of urban green spaces means tree species composition is influenced by management decisions at various levels, including by institutions, municipalities, and individual landowners responsible for their care. Using a mixed-method approach combining a traditional field-inventory and community science project, we inventoried urban trees in the residential neighbourhood of Notre-Dame-de-Grȃce, Montreal. We assessed how tree diversity, composition and structure varies across multiple green space types in the public and private domain (parks, institutions, street rights of way and private yards) at multiple scales. We assessed how service-based traits – traits capturing aspects of plant form and functions that urban residents find beneficial – differed across green space types, with implications for the distribution of ecosystem services across the urban landscape. Green space types displayed meaningful differences in tree diversity, structure, and service-based traits. For example, the inclusion of private trees contributed an additional 52 species (>30% of total species) not found in the local public tree inventory. Trees on private land also tended to be smaller than those in the public domain. Beyond patterns of tree richness, size, and abundance we also observed differences in the composition of tree species and service-based traits at site-scales, particularly between street rights-of way and private yards. While species composition varied considerably across street blocks, blocks were very similar to one another in terms of mean service-based traits. Contrastingly, while species composition was similar from yard to yard, yards differed significantly in mean service-based trait values. Our work emphasises that public tree inventories are unlikely to be fully representative of urban forest composition, structure, and benefits, with implications for urban forest management at larger spatial scales.     

Green infrastructure practices for improvement of urban air quality

Green Infrastructure (GI) practices have shown to be promising in mitigating the air pollution in urban areas of several cities across the world. GI practices such as trees, green roofs and green walls are widely used in United States and Europe to mitigate the air pollution. However, there is yet limited knowledge available in identifying the most suitable GI strategy for an urban area in improving the air quality. Furthermore, it is evident that Australia is still lagging behind in adapting GI to mitigate air pollution, compared with US and Europe. Therefore, this study analyzed the air quality improvement through several GI scenarios consisting of trees, green roofs and green walls considering a case study area in Melbourne, Australia by using the i-Tree Eco software. The results were compared with case studies in different cities across the world. The results showed that the i-Tree Eco software can be successfully applied to an Australian case study area to quantify the air quality improvement benefits of GI. The results were further assessed with several environmental, economic and social indicators to identify the most suitable GI scenarios for the study area. These indicators were quantified using different methods, to assess the effectiveness of different GI scenarios. The results showed that, trees provided the highest air pollution removal capability among the different GI considered for the study area. Combination of different GI such as green roofs and green walls with trees did not provide a significant increment of air quality improvement however, has provided more local benefits such as building energy savings. The results obtained from this study were also beneficial in developing policies related to future GI applications in major cities of Australia for the air quality improvement.     

Institutionalizing urban forestry as a “biotechnology” to improve environmental quality

Urban forests can provide multiple environmental benefits. As urban areas expand, the role of urban vegetation in improving environmental quality will increase in importance. Quantification of these benefits has revealed that urban forests can significantly improve air quality. As a result, national air quality regulations are now willing to potentially credit tree planting as means to improve air quality. Similarly, quantification of other environmental benefits of urban trees (e.g., water quality improvement, carbon sequestration) could provide for urban vegetation to be incorporated in other programs/regulations designed to improve environmental quality.     

Quantifying green cover change for sustainable urban planning: A case of Kuala Lumpur,Malaysia

Despite the numerous benefits of urban green cover, urban land development has led to its destruction and degradation, including in Malaysia. In this study, time series Landsat satellite imagery were used to monitor green cover changes in Kuala Lumpur (KL), the largest and capital city of Malaysia. An advanced satellite image processing technique that considers the mixed-pixel problem was employed to determine the fraction of green cover in each Landsat pixel. Results show that the total green coverage in Kuala Lumpur decreased by 3% over the first study period, from 6564 ha in 2001–5,891 ha in 2013. However, it increased by 4% in the second, from 6215 ha in 2014–7,310 ha in 2016, and now green cover is 30% of the total land area of KL. These periods were selected to observe the changes in green cover before and after implementation of the “Greening KL” program, which was aimed to plant 100,000 trees in KL by year 2020. Most of the increase in green cover was contributed by trees planted along streets and in recreational parks. Other findings include a loss of ∼9% of green cover in two public parks compared to their total gazetted area, and a loss of green area in other forested parts of KL. Focus group discussions and structured interviews with public, private and non-governmental organizations indicate that green-cover losses can be partly attributed to weak regulations and their poor enforcement. Opportunities to protect and increase green cover in KL are also explored in this study. Such approaches are urgently needed before most of the green areas disappear from the landscape of KL, exacerbating the existing environmental problems in the city.     

The domestic garden – Its contribution to urban green infrastructure

Domestic gardens provide a significant component of urban green infrastructure but their relative contribution to eco-system service provision remains largely un-quantified. ‘Green infrastructure’ itself is often ill-defined, posing problems for planners to ascertain what types of green infrastructure provide greatest benefit and under what circumstances. Within this context the relative merits of gardens are unclear; however, at a time of greater urbanization where private gardens are increasingly seen as a ‘luxury’, it is important to define their role precisely. Hence, the nature of this review is to interpret existing information pertaining to gardens/gardening per se, identify where they may have a unique role to play and to highlight where further research is warranted. The review suggests that there are significant differences in both form and management of domestic gardens which radically influence the benefits. Nevertheless, gardens can play a strong role in improving the environmental impact of the domestic curtilage, e.g. by insulating houses against temperature extremes they can reduce domestic energy use. Gardens also improve localized air cooling, help mitigate flooding and provide a haven for wildlife. Less favourable aspects include contributions of gardens and gardening to greenhouse gas emissions, misuse of fertilizers and pesticides, and introduction of alien plant species. Due to the close proximity to the home and hence accessibility for many, possibly the greatest benefit of the domestic garden is on human health and well-being, but further work is required to define this clearly within the wider context of green infrastructure.     

Stakeholder perceptions of the socio-ecological role of nature-based solutions in the Les Glòries Park,Barcelona

The ongoing effects of the climate emergency and the recognition of the need to redesign cities to cope with future socio-environmental changes and increase the quality of life of urban inhabitants has pushed many cities to embrace the ‘re-naturalization’ of public space through Nature-based Solutions (NbS). Les Glòries park (Barcelona) is an ongoing massive urban transformation project that incorporates NbS as a multifunctional tool. It attempts to respond to complex environmental, social, and economic urban problems while at the same time mitigating and adapting to hazards, such as floods and droughts, both predicted to increase in the Mediterranean region due to climate change. While NbS are also expected to improve environmental quality, not much attention has been given to how those strategies would intersect with citizens’ expectations and visions of public space and the uneven socio-environmental relations they can enforce. Through a case of urban development of a new large green area in Barcelona, this article aims to discern different perceptions by the local community and planners on the socio-ecological role of NbS and the implications this has for sustainable urban transitions. In-depth interviews were held with 25 key stakeholders and users, complemented by the analysis of secondary data from the town council of Barcelona about the perception of the space by residents living in the surrounding neighborhoods of the park. The results of this paper show that perceptions around NbS are strongly divided into three groups: the believers, the opposers and the skepticals. These results contribute to nuance NbS, as they do not provide universal benefits, neither for nature nor for society, and that they are subject to urban tensions derived from inequities, conflicts, tradeoffs, and particularly from divided visions of what the ‘re-naturalization’ of cities should look like.