Allometric equations for urban ash trees (Fraxinus spp.) in Oakville,Southern Ontario,Canada

Tree growth equations are an important and common tool used to effectively assess the yield and determine management practices in forest plantations. Increasingly, they are being developed for urban forests, providing tools to assist urban forest managers with species selection, placement, and estimation of management costs and ecosystem services. This study describes the development of allometric equations for Fraxinus americana and F. pennsylvanica growing in Oakville, Canada. With data collected from 103 ash trees, five allometric models were tested to develop equations estimating diameter-at-breast-height (dbh), tree height, crown width and crown height, using age and dbh as explanatory variables. Mean annual growth rates are presented to demonstrate species growth performance and were not significantly different over the first 40 years of growth for the two species. Of all the tested random coefficient models for both species, the cubic with weight 1/x provided the best fit for estimating dbh from age. The best models for other parameters were the loglog for crown height from dbh, the quadratic for crown diameter from dbh, and the linear for tree height from dbh for F. americana. Model types showed more consistency for F. pennsylvanica with linear providing the best fit for crown diameter, crown height and tree height from dbh. The number of model types suggests the difficulty of fitting any single model to the vast array of conditions affecting plant growth in urban areas where management practices and environment can significantly influence tree size and growth. These models may be used to estimate the growth of ash tree populations in Oakville and communities with similar climate, soil, planting, and management environments.     

Updating urban forest inventories: An example of the DISMUT model

Canberra is a unique city in Australia where the trees on public land that dominate the urban forest were planned for at the city's inception. In the mid-1990s, a 100% census of street and park trees was completed, and together with simple health, growth and yield models, this database formed the basis of a decision information system to support the management of the urban trees – DISMUT. The accuracy of the models was evaluated in a study in 2005 where models to predict total tree height were found to be unbiased and precise, tree crown dimension were under-estimated for small trees, and tree health was over-estimated. The over-estimate of health may be due to the relatively poor rainfall conditions over the past 10 years while the biases in crown dimension predictions are more likely due to a too simple model form. However, the existence of DISMUT predictions over all streets and parks in Canberra means that statistically efficient two-phase sampling approaches can be used to correct for any bias in the mean estimates of tree numbers and size, and also to predict the mean value of other environmental, economic or social parameters of interest that are correlated to tree size.     

Spatial patterns of a subtropical,coastal urban forest: Implications for land tenure,hurricanes, and invasives

Spatial patterns of tree structure and composition were studied to assess the effects of land tenure, management regimes, and the environment on a coastal, subtropical urban forest. A total of 229 plots in remnant natural areas, private residential, public non-residential, and private non-residential land tenures were analyzed in a 1273 km² study area encompassing the urbanized portion of Miami-Dade County, USA. Statistical mixed models of structure, composition, location, and land tenure data were used to analyze spatial patterns across the study area. A total of 1200 trees were measured of which 593 trees (49%) were located in residential areas, 67 (6%) in public non-residential areas, 135 trees (11%) in private non-residential areas, and 405 (34%) in remnant, natural areas. A total of 107 different tree species belonging to 90 genera were sampled. Basal area in residential land tenures increased towards the coast while private residential land tenures and natural areas had higher species diversity than non-residential areas. Tree height, crown light exposure, and crown area might indicate the effects of past hurricane impacts on urban forest structure. Land tenure, soil types, and urban morphology influenced composition and structure. Broadleaf evergreen trees are the most common growth form, followed by broadleaf deciduous, palms, and conifers. Exotic tree species originated mainly from Asia and 15% of all trees measured were considered exotic-highly invasive species. We discuss the use of these results as an ecological basis for management and resilience towards hurricane damage and identifying occurrence of invasive, exotic trees.     

Growth rates of common urban trees in five cities in Great Britain: A dendrochronological evaluation with an emphasis on the impact of climate

The knowledge of the rate at which trees grow in urban areas is an important aspect to consider as it can influence our quantification and valuation of the ecosystem services provided by an urban forest. This study investigates growth variations in diameter and height for four common urban tree species (Acer pseudoplatanus, Betula pendula, Fraxinus excelsior and Quercus robur) across five cities in Great Britain (GB) and how the typical radial growth of two of those species (F. excelsior and Q. robur) changes with climate. Dendrochronology was used to identify tree age and changes in ring width and diameter at breast height (DBH) and tree height were measured in-situ at the time of coring. Results indicate a substantial variation in the mean annual growth rates and the relationships between DBH and age or height and age of each species across different cities. However, the multiple factors affecting tree growth seem to influence different species in different ways, with for example A. pseudoplatanus trees showing overall the fastest growth in Peterborough but B. pendula ones showing the slowest. Precipitation and temperature had an effect on radial growth of F. excelsior and Q. robur trees in GB, but the strength and direction of influence varied with time of year, species and city. In particular, low precipitation at the start or during the growing season was found to be a significant factor limiting radial growth. A trend towards a reduction in ring width increment was therefore identified in hot and dry years, primarily in south-eastern cities but in other cities too. This highlights the risk that a changing climate may have on the growth and, consequently, on the ecosystem service provision of healthy urban trees.     

Mapping the urban forest in detail: From LiDAR point clouds to 3D tree models

Trees are an integral component of the urban environment and important for human well-being, adaption measures to climate change and sustainable urban transformation. Understanding the small-scale impacts of urban trees and strategically managing the ecosystem services they provide requires high-resolution information on urban forest structure, which is still scarce. In contrast, there is an abundance of data portraying urban areas and an associated trend towards smart cities and digital twins as analysis platforms. A GIS workflow is presented in this paper that may close this data gap by classifying the urban forest from LiDAR point clouds, detecting and reconstructing individual crowns, and enabling a tree representation within semantic 3D city models. The workflow is designed to provide robust results for point clouds with a density of at least 4 pts/m² that are widely available. Evaluation was conducted by mapping the urban forest of Dresden (Germany) using a point cloud with 4 pts/m². An object-based data fusion approach is implemented for the classification of the urban forest. A classification accuracy of 95 % for different urban settings is achieved by combining LiDAR with multispectral imagery and a 3D building model. Individual trees are detected by local maxima filtering and crowns are segmented using marker-controlled watershed segmentation. Evaluation highlights the influences of both urban and forest structure on individual tree detection. Substantial differences in detection accuracies are evident between trees along streets (72 %) and structurally more complex tree stands in green areas (31 %), as well as dependencies on tree height and crown diameter. Furthermore, an approach for parameterized reconstruction of tree crowns is presented, which enables efficient and realistic city-wide modeling. The suitability of LiDAR to measure individual tree metrics is illustrated as well as a framework for modeling individual tree crowns via geometric primitives.     

Urban forest structure and land cover composition effects on land surface temperature in a semi-arid suburban area

Using multispectral imagery and LiDAR data, we developed a high-resolution land cover dataset for a semi-arid, Colorado (USA) suburb. These data were used to evaluate patterns of land cover composition and vertical structure in relation to land use and age of development. Landsat 5 TM thermal band data for six separate dates were used to compare land surface temperature (LST) in urbanized and remnant shortgrass steppe reference areas. We used 2010 census blocks to extract LST and various explanatory variables for use in Random Forest models evaluating the relative importance of land cover composition, LiDAR-derived vertical structure variables, and the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) on LST patterns.We found that land cover, vertical structure, and LST varied between areas with different land use and neighborhood age. Older neighborhoods supported significantly higher tree cover and mean tree height, but differences in LST were inconsistent between Landsat image dates. NDVI had the highest variable importance in Random Forests models, followed by tree height and the mean height difference between trees and buildings. Models incorporating NDVI, vertical structure, and land cover had the highest predictive accuracy but did not perform significantly better than models using just vertical structure and NDVI. Developed areas were cooler on average than shortgrass steppe reference areas, likely due to the influence of supplemental irrigation in urbanized areas. Patterns of LST were spatially variable, highlighting the complex ways land cover composition and vertical structure can affect urban temperature.     

Factors influencing street tree health in constrained planting spaces: Evidence from Kyoto City,Japan

Street trees are threatened by multiple stresses from biophysical and anthropogenic factors. This situation can be extremely challenging in highly developed urban areas with limited space for tree planting. Asia has some of the most densely populated cities globally, but there is a lack of data on factors affecting street tree health in the region. This study aims to examine the impact of constrained planting environments on the health condition of street trees through a case study in Kyoto City, Japan. The health condition of 1230 street trees distributed throughout the city was assessed from June to October 2018. Additionally, several tree- and site-related variables were collected to identify their impact on tree health. Trees that were in excellent and good condition accounted for 19.9 % and 32.0 % of the sample population, respectively. Multivariate linear regression (N = 1139) revealed that tree health condition was significantly related to pruning intensity, tree pit size, adjacent land use, presence/absence of tree grate or guard, width of sidewalk, tree height, presence/absence of dedicated cycle route, tree pit pattern, crown light exposure, DBH and tree pit type. Platanus × acerifolia and other trees with large diameters exhibited relatively poor condition, along with those in tree pits with concrete paving, without tree grates, or in industrial areas, whereas trees planted in strips exceeding 1.8 m in length and exposed to weak pruning showed the best condition. These results imply the potential for healthy growth of street trees in the restricted planting spaces of Kyoto City, which suggests appropriate management and planting practices. Moreover, our empirical data can inform urban tree managers to support their efforts in making decisions on the better matching of species tolerances with urban site conditions for future street tree plans.     

A comparison of local and general models of leaf area and biomass of urban trees in USA

Ecosystem service estimation is a very popular topic. Many urban studies use the i-Tree Eco model developed by US Forest Service to estimate ecosystem services. Several ecosystem service estimation studies have been conducted acting upon the assumption that relationships developed elsewhere are applicable to sites that vary in species, site, climate, and environmental conditions. This study tested the accuracy of highly used existing leaf area and biomass models when used outside the region in which it was developed. To do this, we measured 74 urban trees from five species in Stevens Point, Wisconsin collecting data such as diameter at breast height (Dbh), tree height, height to the base of live crown, crown width, crown volume, leaf area, and leaf dry weight biomass. Using the data, we developed two models each to predict leaf area and biomass. Using ten independent samples, we compared our predictions with predictions from the existing models which are also used in i-Tree. Our results indicated that the local models developed in the current study predicted leaf area and biomass better than existing models which had higher prediction error. The difference in prediction will ultimately affect ecosystem services estimation when. using i-Tree, and future studies should acknowledge the difference.     

The feasibility of remotely sensed data to estimate urban tree dimensions and biomass

Accurately measuring the biophysical dimensions of urban trees, such as crown diameter, stem diameter, height, and biomass, is essential for quantifying their collective benefits as an urban forest. However, the cost of directly measuring thousands or millions of individual trees through field surveys can be prohibitive. Supplementing field surveys with remotely sensed data can reduce costs if measurements derived from remotely sensed data are accurate. This study identifies and measures the errors incurred in estimating key tree dimensions from two types of remotely sensed data: high-resolution aerial imagery and LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging). Using Sacramento, CA, as the study site, we obtained field-measured dimensions of 20 predominant species of street trees, including 30–60 randomly selected trees of each species. For each of the 802 trees crown diameter was estimated from the aerial photo and compared with the field-measured crown diameter. Three curve-fitting equations were tested using field measurements to derive diameter at breast height (DBH) (r² = 0.883, RMSE = 10.32 cm) from the crown diameter. The accuracy of tree height extracted from the LiDAR-based surface model was compared with the field-measured height (RMSE = 1.64 m). We found that the DBH and tree height extracted from the remotely sensed data were lower than their respective field-measured values without adjustment. The magnitude of differences in these measures tended to be larger for smaller-stature trees than for larger stature species. Using DBH and tree height calculated from remotely sensed data, aboveground biomass (r² = 0.881, RMSE = 799.2 kg) was calculated for individual tree and compared with results from field-measured DBH and height. We present guidelines for identifying potential errors in each step of data processing. These findings inform the development of procedures for monitoring tree growth with remote sensing and for calculating single tree level carbon storage using DBH from crown diameter and tree height in the urban forest.     

Relationships between bole and crown size for young urban trees in the northeastern USA

Knowledge of allometric equations can enable urban forest managers to meet desired economic, social, and ecological goals. However, there remains limited regional data on young tree growth within the urban landscape. The objective of this study is to address this research gap and examine interactions between age, bole size and crown dimensions of young urban trees in New Haven, CT, USA to identify allometric relationships and generate predictive growth equations useful for the region. This study examines the 10 most common species from a census of 1474 community planted trees (ages 4–16). Regressions were applied to relate diameter at breast height (dbh), age (years since transplanting), tree height, crown diameter and crown volume. Across all ten species each allometric relationship was statistically (p < 0.001) significant at an α-level of 0.05. Consistently, shade trees demonstrated stronger relationships than ornamental trees. Crown diameter and dbh displayed the strongest fit with eight of the ten species having an R² > 0.70. Crown volume exhibited a good fit for each of the shade tree species (R² > 0.85), while the coefficients of determination for the ornamentals varied (0.38 < R² < 0.73). In the model predicting height from dbh, ornamentals displayed the lowest R² (0.33 < R² < 0.55) while shade trees represented a much better fit (R² > 0.66). Allometric relationships can be used to develop spacing guidelines for commonly planted urban trees. These correlations will better equip forest managers to predict the growth of urban trees, thereby improving the management and maintenance of New England's urban forests.     

Perception and preference of trees: A psychological contribution to tree species selection in urban areas

Trees can enhance human mental and physical well-being in urban environments. However, the tree benefits in urban planning are insufficiently recognised, and there is little knowledge on the tree characteristics that are relevant to humans and how they are evaluated. This paper presents perceptual tree parameters and their relation to human preferences. In study 1, participants sorted 24 tree images by perceived similarity. Hierarchical cluster analysis and multidimensional scaling (MDS) revealed the distinction between conifers and deciduous trees, crown shape, the two-dimensional crown size to trunk height ratio and the crown density as important to humans. In study 2, participants rated the trees based on their preferences. Multiple linear regression analyses showed that a high two-dimensional crown size to trunk height ratio and a high crown density predicted deciduous tree preferences. These findings are discussed in light of the savannah hypothesis and the Gestalt grouping principle of closure. In the task of tree selection and placement for urban areas, the identified perceptual tree parameters may allow for achieving a coherent overall picture with a simultaneous increase of tree species richness. Thus, urban landscape planning can apply the presented findings for increasing ecosystem health and residential satisfaction.     

Estimation of broad-leaved canopy growth in the urban forested area using multi-temporal airborne LiDAR datasets

Inter-annual canopy growth is one of the key indicators for assessing forest conditions, but the measurements require laborious field surveys. Up-to-date LiDAR remote sensing provides sufficient three-dimensional morphological information of the ground to monitor canopy heights on a broad scale. Thus, we attempted to use multi-temporal airborne LiDAR datasets in the estimation of vertical canopy growth, across various types of broad-leaved trees in a large urban park.The growth of broad-leaved canopies in the EXPO '70 urban forest in Osaka, Japan was assessed with 19 plots at the stand level and 39 selected trees at the individual-tree level. Airborne LiDAR campaigns repeatedly observed the park in the summers of 2004, 2008, and 2010. We acquired canopy height models (CHMs) for each year from the height values of the uppermost laser returns at every 0.5 m grid. The annual canopy growth was calculated by the differences in CHMs and validated with the annual changes in field-measured basal areas and tree heights.LiDAR estimations revealed that the average annual canopy growth from 2004 to 2010 was 0.26 ± 0.11 m m⁻² yr⁻¹ at the plot level and 0.26 ± 0.10 m m⁻² yr⁻¹ at the individual-tree level. This result showed that growing trends were consistent at different scales through 2004 to 2010 despite uncertainty in estimating short-term growth for small crown areas at the individual-tree level. This LiDAR-estimated canopy growth shows a moderate relation to field-measured increase of basal areas and average heights. The estimation uncertainties seem to result from the complex canopy structure and irregular crown shape of broad-leaved trees. Challenges still remain on how to incorporate the growth of understory trees, growth in the lateral direction, and gap dynamics inside the canopy, particularly in applying multi-temporal LiDAR datasets to the large-scale growth assessment.     

Image-based estimation of crown volume of individual street trees by plane calculation of angle disparity

Street trees provide significant and widespread environmental benefits to the city and its citizens, such as improved air quality and adaptation to climate change. Crown volume (CV) indicates the geometric volume of crown, which is an essential indicator for the ecological service evaluation of street trees. The measurement of CV makes it possible to assess the carbon storage and input cost of urban trees. Because of the particularity of crown shape of street trees, the existing two-dimensional methods of calculating CV of forest trees become difficult except the three-dimensional techniques through the unmanned aerial vehicle, LiDAR equipment, and traditional harvest methods. In this study, a new virtual research method for plane calculation of angle disparity (PCAD) is proposed to calculate the CV of street trees. Two temporal satellite images of the exact location were first collected from Google Earth Pro, and then the angle disparity of images was adopted as a starting point to calculate tree height. Finally, CV was calculated from tree height, stem height, and crown diameter. The feasibility of the method was verified by a sample survey of street trees in Shanghai, China and the relative error of CV calculation by PCAD compared to that by field survey was 17.31 %. PCAD has the advantages of low-cost, quick operation, and suitability for a large area in studying CV of street trees.     

Tree mortality rates and tree population projections in Baltimore, Maryland, USA

Based on re-measurements (1999 and 2001) of randomly-distributed permanent plots within the city boundaries of Baltimore, Maryland, trees are estimated to have an annual mortality rate of 6.6% with an overall annual net change in the number of live trees of –4.2%. Tree mortality rates were significantly different based on tree size, condition, species, and land use. Morus alba, Ailanthus altissima, and trees in small diameter classes, poor condition, or in transportation or commercial – industrial land uses exhibited relatively high mortality rates. Trees in medium- to low-density residential areas exhibited low mortality rates. The high mortality rate for A. altissima is an artifact of this species distribution among land use types (24% were in the transportation land use). Based on a new tree population projection model that incorporates Baltimore's existing tree population and annual mortality estimates, along with estimates of annual tree growth, Baltimore's urban forest is projected to decline in both number of trees and canopy area over the next century. Factors affecting urban tree mortality are discussed.     

Aesthetic growth of a native tree species with desirable characteristics for urban green areas in arid and semiarid environments

Having an aesthetic form is one of the desirable aspects of trees used to create or reforest urban green areas, which is often achieved by procedures that require a great effort. The understanding of factors affecting the architecture of plants in natural conditions may be useful to promote a desirable shape during the growth process. Under the hypothesis that trees in high luminosity conditions have a more aesthetical growth, in this study we explore the relationship between plant shape and photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) in Bursera fagaroides, a characteristic species of the tropical dry forest and xerophytic shrub-lands useful for urban green areas in semiarid environments. To evaluate trees shape we calculate a symmetry index (I_S) by using two diameters of the crown, perpendicular to each other, and the total height. Measurements were made over three periods (before, during and after the growth period); and PAR was also measured for each tree. Linear regressions were used to analyze the relationship between the symmetry of trees and PAR received during the growth period. The post-growth symmetry of trees showed a positive relationship with the PAR received by trees during the growth period, suggesting that PAR effects can be harnessed to develop post-germination strategies for the production of trees with a more aesthetical growth in the studied species. Effect of PAR on the shape of plants may represent a practical option to promote aesthetical growth of trees and shrubs with importance for creation and restoration of urban green areas.     

The impacts of historical land-use and landscape variables on hollow-bearing trees along an urbanisation gradient

Hollow-bearing trees provide habitat for diverse taxonomic groups and as such they are recognised for their importance globally. There is, however scant reference to this resource relative within urban forest patches. The functional ecology of habitat remnants along an urbanisation gradient plays an important ecological, social and economic role within urban landscapes. Here we quantify the impacts of urbanisation, landscape, environmental, disturbance (past and present) and stand variables on hollow-bearing tree density within urban forest patches. This was undertaken by surveying 45 forest patches on the Gold Coast, south-east Queensland, Australia. Sites were categorised as; urban, peri-urban or rural along an urbanisation gradient, with an additional five control sites. Historical logging practices were found to be the driving factor influencing hollow-bearing tree density along the urbanisation gradient; while the impacts of urbanisation itself are not as yet discernible. These findings highlight the significance of incorporating historical land use practise into current and future urban planning, as these will have continuing impacts on remaining urban biodiversity values. These findings, will benefit natural resource managers and urban planners when making decisions about where and how best to manage for hollow-bearing trees along urbanisation gradients.     

Modeling black carbon removal by city trees: Implications for urban forest planning

Urban forests provide multiple ecosystem services, including particulate matter (PM) air pollution removal. While previous studies have assessed relationships between atmospheric PM concentrations and urban land use and land cover, few studies have modeled PM removal by trees in relation to urban form (e.g., topography, land use, land cover, and proximity to emission sources). Particulate matter is a mixture of particles, including black carbon (BC), a byproduct of incomplete fossil fuel and biomass combustion with strong warming potential and linked to adverse health outcomes. We coupled empirical BC deposition data, collected from urban trees in Denton, Texas, with 226 urban form variables to generate land use regression models of annual and seasonal BC removal. Annual and seasonal models revealed emission source proxies, terrain exposure towards emission sources, and topographic exposure as influential to BC removal by trees. Regression equations were applied at one-meter resolution to estimate the BC removal potential of tree planting across the city. The resultant maps, which show regions of probable high and low BC removal by trees, can be used by arborists, urban foresters, landscape architects, and urban planners to inform urban forest design, planning, and decision-making.     

Shade factors for 149 taxa of in-leaf urban trees in the USA

Shade factors, defined as the percentage of sky covered by foliage and branches within the perimeter of individual tree crowns, have been used to model the effects of trees on air pollutant uptake, building energy use and rainfall interception. For the past 30 years the primary source of shade factors was a database containing values from 47 species. In most cases, values were obtained from measurements on a single tree in one location. To expand this database 11,024 shade factors were obtained for 149 urban tree species through a photometric process applied to the predominant species in 17 U.S. cities. Two digital images were taken of each tree, crowns were isolated, silhouette area defined and shade factors calculated as the ratio of shaded (i.e., foliage and woody material) pixels to total pixels within the crown silhouette area. The highly nonlinear relationship between both age and diameter at breast height (DBH), and shade factor was captured using generalized additive mixed models.We found that shade factors increased with age until trees reached about 20 years or 30 cm DBH. Using a single shade factor from a mature tree for a young tree can overestimate actual crown density. Also, in many cases, shade factors were found to vary considerably for the same species growing in different climate zones. We provide a set of tables that contain the necessary values to compute shade factors from DBH or age with species and climate effects accounted for. This new information expands the scope of urban species with measured shade factors and allows researchers and urban foresters to more accurately predict their values across time and space.     

Creation of multi-layered canopy structures in young oak-dominated urban woodlands – The ‘ecological approach’ revisited

We investigated the stand structure of ten young urban woodlands established in Southern Scandinavia during the 1970s and 1980s according to the ecological approach, which advocated the use of many different species of trees and shrubs to create complex canopy structures as soon as possible after establishment to promote recreation and biodiversity. Tree height and live crown depths were measured and analysed using a combination of quantitative and qualitative approaches to assess the forest structure in terms of canopy stratification. The results show that the current canopy structures could be classified into seven different two- and three-layered structural types which had evolved as a combination of differences in management frequency and the initial species composition. Two layered stands were characterized by lower management frequency compared to three layered stands and stands in transition to three layers. They were also established with a lower proportion of understory species and a higher proportion of shade tree species. The total number of species at the establishment did not influence how stands were categorized. The two main conclusions are that recurrent thinnings is a key factor for successful management of young, species rich forest plantations, and that species composition can increase the resilience towards management neglect. Instead of aiming at maximising total species number it is more reasonable to focus on a few key species in each layer. We conclude that three-layered canopy structures can be created already after twenty five years, which should encourage planners and practitioners to incorporate multilayered stands in future urban woodland creation.     

The impact of pruning and mortality on urban tree canopy volume

Urban trees provide a wide range of ecosystem services for city residents, with tall, mature trees with wide crowns generally regarded as preferable. The tree biomass which is responsible for shading, pollution removal, rain runoff retention etc. gets periodically reduced by the municipal tree management practice of pruning. This is a necessary activity, which reduces the risk of infrastructure damage and falling branches, but many estimates of ecosystem service provision in cities do not consider its impact explicitly. Tree mortality is also higher in cities, preventing trees from attaining and remaining at large sizes. This study used extensive field measurements of tree structure to estimate the impact of pruning on 8 tree species in two Italian cities: Taranto and Florence. Crown widths were reduced by 1.6 m on average, however there is large variation between species variation with branches more often being removed for thinning crowns resulting in larger gap fractions, which increased by 15% on average. No significant differences were observed for crown widths or gap fraction between trees pruned 3 and 4 years previously, suggesting that tree crowns structurally recover from pruning after 3 years. A deterministic model revealed that current urban forest pruning rates (every 6 years) and mortality (1%) may create a situation in which a city dominated by the species studied benefits from 93.5% of the maximum ecosystem services possible. This work will allow more nuanced estimates of urban forest services to be calculated.