Agroforestry for soil and water conservation in the western Himalayan Valley Region of India 1. Runoff, soil and nutrient losses

Erosion losses were investigated in a field experiment, from 90 × 15 m erosion plots at 4% slope in the western Himalayan valley region of India. The plots were planted with Leucaena leucocephala and Eucalyptus hybrid, either as block plantation or in alley farming with maize (Zea mays), Chrysopogon fulvus grass or turmeric (Curcuma longa). The treatments also included contour planting of sole maize, sole Chrysopogon fulvus grass and a clean weeded cultivated fallow. During the nine year study period, the average annual monsoon rainfall was about 1000 mm and it caused 347 mm runoff and 39 Mg ha^-1 soil loss per year from fallow plots. The runoff and soil loss were reduced by 27% and 45% by contour cultivation of maize. Contour tree-rows or leucaena hedges reduced the runoff and soil loss by 40% and 48%, respectively, over the maize plot, reducing soil loss to about 12.5 Mg ha^-1. This reduction in erosion was primarily due to the barrier effect of tree or hedgerows and micro-terraces formed through sediment deposition along the contour barriers. Such vegetative measures, that are productive while being protective, offer viable alternative for erosion control in areas with gentile slopes of the valley region. High density block plantations of eucalyptus and leucaena almost completely controlled erosional losses and can be recommended for steeper slopes that are vulnerable to heavy erosion. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Partitioning of simulated rainfall in a kaolinitic soil under improved fallow–maize rotation in Zimbabwe

Research on improved fallows has concentrated on soil fertility benefits neglecting possible benefits to soil and water conservation. The effects of improved fallows on rainfall partitioning and associated soil loss were investigated using simulated rainfall on a kaolinitic soil in Zimbabwe. Simulated rainfall at an intensity of 35 mm h⁻¹ was applied onto plots that were under planted fallows of Acacia angustissima and Sesbania sesban, natural fallow and maize (Zea mays L.) for two years. At the end of 2-years in October 2000, steady state infiltration rates could not be determined in A. angustissima and natural fallow plots, but they were 24 mm h⁻¹ in S. sesban and 5 mm h⁻¹ in continuous maize. The estimated runoff losses after 30 min of rainfall were 44% from continuous maize compared with 22% from S. sesban and none from A. angustissima and natural fallow plots. Infiltration rate decay coefficients were 36 mm and 10 mm for S. sesban and continuous maize, respectively. In October 2001 after one post-fallow crop, it was still not possible to determine the steady state infiltration rates in A. angustissima and natural fallows, but they were 8 and 5 mm h⁻¹ for, S. sesban and continuous maize systems, respectively. The runoff loss, averaged across tilled and no-tilled plots, increased to 30% in the case of S. sesban fallowed plots and 57% for continuous maize; there was still no runoff loss from the other treatments. There were significant differences (P<0.05) in infiltration rate decay coefficients among treatments. The infiltration rate decay coefficient was 25 mm for S. sesban and it remained unchanged at 10 mm for continuous maize. It is concluded that planted tree fallows increase steady state infiltration rates and reduce runoff rates, but these effects markedly decrease after the first year of maize cropping in non-coppicing tree fallows. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Coppicing improved fallows are profitable for maize production in striga infested soils of western Kenya

Striga hermonthica (striga) weed is a major threat to crop production in sub-Saharan Africa, and short duration improved fallow species have recently been found to reduce the effects of this weed because of their ability to replenish soil nitrogen. The objective of this study was to compare the efficacy and profitability of coppicing improved fallow species (Gliricidia sepium [gliricidia], Leucaena trichandra [leucaena] and Calliandra calothyrsus [calliandra]) and non-coppicing species (Sesbania sesban [sesbania], Mucuna pruriens [mucuna], and Tephrosia vogelii [tephrosia]), in controlling striga. Natural fallow and a sole maize crop were included as control treatments. The fallow treatments were split into two and either fertilized with N or unfertilized. The results showed that coppicing fallows produced higher biomass than non-coppicing fallows. For example, Callindra (coppicing fallow species) produced 19.5 and 41.4 Mg ha⁻¹ of leafy and woody biomass, respectively after four cumulative harvests as compared with Sesbania (non-coppicing species), which produced only 2.3 and 5.9 Mg ha⁻¹ leaf and woody biomass, respectively. Improved fallows reduced striga population in proportion to the amount of leafy biomass incorporated into the soil (r = 0.87). N application increased cumulative maize yield by between 15–28% in improved fallow systems and by as much as 51–83% in the control treatments. Added total costs of the coppicing fallows did not differ significantly from those of the non-coppicing fallows and control treatments. However, the added net benefits of the coppicing fallows were significantly higher (US$ 527 for +N and 428 for −N subplots; P < 0.01) than those of the non-coppicing fallows (US$ 374 for +N and 278 for −N), and the least for the control treatments. The most profitable fallow system was Tephrosia with net added benefits of US$ 453.5 ha⁻¹ season⁻¹ without N, and US$ 586.7 ha⁻¹ season⁻¹ with added N.     

Short fallows of Tithonia diversifolia and Crotalaria grahamiana for soil fertility improvement in western Kenya

Managed short-duration fallows may have the potential to replace longer fallows in regions where population density no longer permits slow natural fallow successions. The purpose of fallows is not only to improve subsequent crop performance but also to restore soil fertility and organic matter content for the long term. We therefore evaluated the soil organic matter and nutrient flows and fractions in a short fallow experiment managed in the western Kenya highlands, and also compared the experimental area with a 9–12-yr-oldadjacent natural bush fallow. The factorial agroforestry field experiment with four land-use and two P fertilizer treatments on a Kandiudalfic Eutrudox showed that 31-wk managed fallows with Tithonia diversifolia(Hemsley) A. Gray and Crotalaria grahamiana Wight &Arn. improved soil fertility and organic matter content above those of a natural weed fallow and continuous maize (Zea mays L.). Post-fallow maize yields were also improved, although cumulative three-season increases in yield were small (0–1.2 Mg ha⁻¹) when the yield foregone during the fallow season was accounted for. Improvements in yield and soil quality could be traced to quantity or quality of biomass recycled by the managed fallows. The non-woody recycled biomass produced by the continuous maize, weed fallow, and tithonia treatments was near 2Mg ha⁻¹, whereas crotalaria produced three times more recyclable biomass and associated N and P. Increases in topsoil N due to the fallows may have been attributable in part to deep acquisition and recycling of N by the fallows. Particulate macro-organic matter produced by the fallows contained sufficient N(30–50 kg ha⁻¹) to contribute substantially to maize production. Organic Paccumulation (29 kg ha⁻¹) similarly may play a significant role in crop nutrition upon subsequent mineralization. The effect of the P fertilizer application on soil properties and maize yield was constant for all land-use systems (i.e., no land-use system × P fertilizer interactions occurred). There was an indication that tithonia may have stimulated infestation of Striga hermonthica (Del.) Benth., and care must be taken to evaluate the full effects of managed fallows over several seasons. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Potentials of Millettia thonningii and Pterocarpus santalinoides for alley cropping in humid lowlands of West Africa

This study was conducted to assess the suitability of two fallow species that are indigenous to West Africa, M. thonningii (Schum and Thonn) and P. santalinoides (L'Her), for alley cropping with maize and their effect on soil chemical properties. It was carried out during the rain-fed cropping season at Ibadan, Nigeria and Mbalmayo, Cameroon in 1993 and 1994. Total dry matter of P. santalinoides prunings was higher at the two sites than that of M. thonningii by about 35% to 37%. Maize grain yield in plots supplied with prunings was significantly higher (P > 0.05) than in control (no prunings or fertilizer application) at Ibadan. Grain yield in plots supplied with prunings plus 40 kg ha⁻¹ urea fertilizer gave significantly higher yields than plots supplied with 80 kg N ha⁻¹ urea fertilizer only. At Mbalmayo, there was no significant difference between grain yield in plots supplied with 80 kg N ha⁻¹ and plots supplied with prunings plus 40 kg N ha^-1 urea fertilizer though the latter had higher yields. Grain yield was also higher in the middle rows than in rows adjacent to the hedgerows and these were not significantly different. Weed dry matter was reduced by 27% to 43% when Pterocarpus prunings were applied and 13% to 31% with application of Millettia prunings. Weed flora in both locations changed from grasses to broad leaved. Soil chemical changes at soil depth 0 to 10 cm showed significant increases (pH, C, N, P and Ca) after two cropping seasons in plots supplied with prunings or prunings plus fertilizer than the initial values. At Mbalmayo, K was lower after cropping in treatments than the initial values while at Ibadan, K and Mg were lower except in plots supplied with Pterocarpus prunings only. P. santalinoides and M. thonningii have significant potential for agroforestry in this sub-region. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Soil fertility changes and response of maize and beans to green manures of leucaena,sesbania and pigeonpea

Three multipurpose tree species (MPTS)-leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala), sesbania (Sesbania sesban var. nubica) and pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan) were pruned at a height of 60 cm above the ground every two months, and resulting plant biomass was incorporated into the soil as green manure. For comparison, maize (Zea mays) stover was also incorporated into some plots, while some other plots were left fallow. Varying quantities of plant biomass which were incorporated into the soil over a period of 12 months caused large changes in major soil plant nutrients, and it substantially improved soil fertility. To test for improved soil fertility, test crops of maize and beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) were grown on the plots after six biomass incorporations of 4806, 13603, 16659 and 7793 kg. ha^–1yr^–1 for pigeonpea, sesbania leucaena and maize, respectively. Responses of the test crops indicated that sesbania and leucaena green manures improved maize stover, cobs and grain yields; and bean haulms and grain yields by 77.6% when compared to fallow plots. Residual effects of green manures still resulted in significant (P < 0.05) yield differences in the test cropin the third testing season. Economic significance of green manures in increasing food crop yields to small scale farmers is discussed.     

Management of pigeon pea in short fallows for crop-livestock production systems in the Guinea savanna zone of northern Ghana

Crop and livestock production in the Guinea savanna zone of northern Ghana has been declining over the past years as a result of increasing pressure on land. To sustain soil productivity, pigeon pea(Cajanus cajan), a leguminous perennial crop was evaluated for its potential as a short duration fallow crop for fodder and grain, and maize (Zea mays)production. It involved comparing a natural fallow (i.e., control) and four improved fallows of pigeon pea pruned annually at 30 cm, 60 cm and 90 cm from the ground, and unpruned pigeon pea over a two-year period. After this time, the land was cleared manually and planted to maize. The highest mean annual biomass of pigeon pea over the two-year period of 6.1 t ha⁻¹ dry matter (DM) was obtained by pruning at 60 cm. The highest leaf litter production and pigeon pea seed yield was obtained from the no pruning treatment. The mean maize grain yield from the improved fallow (3.02 t ha⁻¹) in the first year after clearing was significantly (P < 0.05) greater than that of the natural fallow (1.54 t ha⁻¹). Considering the biomass of pigeon pea from pruning, pigeon pea seed yield and maize grain yield after the pigeon pea, pruning pigeon pea at 60 cm is the most promising regime for crop-livestock production systems. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Nitrate-N dynamics following improved fallows and maize root development in a Zimbabwean sandy clay loam

Improved or planted fallows using fast-growing leguminous trees are capable of accumulating large amounts of N through biological N₂-fixation and subsoil N capture. During the fallow phase, the cycling of nutrients is largely efficient. However, there are few estimates of the fate of added N during the cropping phase, after the 'safety net' of fallow-tree roots is removed. Nitrate-N at the end of the fallow phase, which is pre-season to the subsequent crop, was monitored in seven land use systems in successive 20-cm soil layers to 120 cm depth at Domboshawa, Zimbabwe in October 2000. Thereafter, nitrate-N dynamics was monitored during cropping phase until April 2001 at 2-week intervals in plots that had previously 2-year planted fallows of Acacia angustissima and Sesbania sesban, and in a continuous maize control. Pre-season nitrate concentrations below 60 cm soil depth were <3 kg N ha⁻¹ layer⁻¹ for S. sesban, A. angustissima, Cajanus cajan and natural woodland compared with the maize (Zea mays L.) control, which had >10 kg N ha⁻¹ layer⁻¹. There was a flush of nitrate in the S. sesbania and A. angustissima plots with the first rains. Topsoil nitrate had increased to >29 kg N ha⁻¹ by the time of establishing the maize crop. This increase in nitrate in the topsoil was not sustained as concentrations decreased rapidly due to leaching. Nitrate then accumulated below 40 cm, early in the season when maize root length density was still low (<0.1 cm cm⁻³) and inadequate to effectively intercept the nitrate. It is concluded that under light soil and high rainfall conditions, there is an inherent problem in managing nitrate originating from mineralization of organic materials as it accumulates at the beginning of the season, well ahead of peak demand by crops, and is susceptible to leaching before the crop root system develops. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Growth and yield of maize and timber trees in smallholder agroforestry systems in Claveria,northern Mindanao,Philippines

On-farm experiments were conducted in the Philippines to study over a 4-year period the growth of two timber trees, gmelina (Gmelina arborea R. Br.) and bagras (Eucalyptus deglupta Blume), and their impact on the grain yield of intercropped maize. The experiment consisted of maize monocropping plots (control) and maize intercropped between trees planted in block (2 × 2.5 m), and hedgerow arrangement (1 × 10 m). Three maize crops were planted in the block plots before canopy closure, and seven maize crops were planted in the hedgerow and monocropping plots. Maize grain yield in the hedgerow and in the block arrangement with gmelina were respectively 37% (16.58 tons ha⁻¹) and 68% (8.3 tons ha⁻¹) lower than in monocropping (26.21 tons ha⁻¹). In the plots with bagras, maize grain yield in hedgerow and in block arrangement were respectively 19% (24.8 tons ha⁻¹) and 66% (10.4 tons ha⁻¹) lower than in monocropping (30.6 tons ha⁻¹). For both tree species, the diameter at breast height (dbh) was greater in hedgerow than in block arrangement, with the difference being more pronounced with age. It was estimated that gmelina planted in hedgerows would produce 6–8 m³ ha⁻¹ of merchantable volume more than if planted in block. The study verifies the hypothesis that intercropping between widely-spaced trees rows (planted at 10 m or more) is more profitable and feasible to smallholders than either maize monocropping or woodlots, and concludes with recommendations on how to further improve the productivity of tree-intercropping systems.     

Establishment of Inga edulis and Calliandra calothyrsus in improved fallow systems in southern Cameroon

The adoption of planted fallow largely depends on the cost and feasibility of using the technology; easy, inexpensive and simple fallow establishment methods are known to greatly enhance adoption. It was the objective of this study to assess the effects of weeding regime on the establishment of Calliandra calothyrsus and Inga edulis on degraded acid soils in southern Cameroon. A combination of the two fallow species and two weeding regimes, weeding or not weeding, were compared to a natural fallow. The trial was conducted in two sites of different base saturation levels with four replications. The results indicate that differences between the two species and the two weeding regimes were statistically significant (p 005) on both sites for all measured tree growth parameters, as well as the residual effects on subsequent maize grain yield. Presence of weeds reduced stem diameter and height of C. calothyrsus and I. edulis at the early stage of their establishment. Weeding doubled the leaf biomass of both species. The highest woodmass was produced by Inga in plots with weeding treatment, with 48 t/ha of dry material. Tree fallow improved the yield of succeeding crops by twofold over the natural grass fallow. Weeding treatment improved maize yield, from 1.9t/ha to 2.8 t/ha after Calliandra fallow, and from 2.22 t/ha to 3.0 t/ha after Inga fallow. The significant effects of weeding treatments implies that fallow-improving tree species should be planted in relay intercropping for trees to benefit from the weeding of crops, thus reducing the labour spent on fallow establishment. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Potential of improved fallows to increase household and regional fuelwood supply: evidence from western Kenya

Fuelwood is the main energy source for households in rural Africa, but its supply is rapidly declining especially in the densely populated areas. Short duration planted tree fallows, an agroforestry technology widely promoted in sub-Sahara Africa for soil fertility improvement may offer some remedy. Our objective was to determine the fuelwood production potential of 6, 12 and 18 months (the common fallow rotation periods) old Crotalaria grahamiana, Crotalaria paulina, Tephrosia vogelli and Tephrosia candida fallows under farmer-managed conditions in western Kenya. Based on plot-level yields, we estimated the extent to which these tree fallows would meet household and sub-national fuelwood needs if farmers planted at least 0.25 hectares, the proportion of land that is typically left under natural fallows by farmers in the region. Fuelwood yield was affected significantly (P < 0.05) by the interaction between species and fallow duration. Among the 6-month-old fallows, T. candida produced the highest fuelwood (8.9 t ha⁻¹), compared with the rest that produced between 5.6 and 6.2 t ha⁻¹. Twelve months old T. candida and C. paulina also produced significantly higher fuelwood yield (average, 9.6 t ha⁻¹) than T. vogelli and C. grahamiana of the same age. Between the fallow durations, the 18-month fallows produced the most fuelwood among the species evaluated, averaging 14.7 t ha⁻¹. This was 2–3 times higher than the average yields of 6 and 12-month-old fallows whose yields were not significantly different. The actual fuelwood harvested from the plots that were planted to improved fallows (which ranged from 0.01 to 0.08 ha) would last a typical household between 11.8 and 124.8 days depending on the species and fallow duration. This would increase to 268.5 (0.7 years) and 1173.7 days (0.7–3.2 years) if farmers were to increase area planted to 0.25 ha. Farmers typically planted the fallows at high stand densities (over 100,000 plants ha⁻¹ on average) in order to maximize their benefits of improving soil fertility and providing fuelwood at the same time. This potential could be increased if more land (which fortunately exists) was planted to the fallows within the farms in the region. The research and development needs for this to happen at the desired scale are highlighted in the paper.     

Nutrient stocks of short-term fallows on a high base status soil in the humid tropics of Papua New Guinea

In order to understand nutrient dynamics in tropical farming systems with fallows, it is necessary to assess changes in nutrient stocks in plants, litter and soils. Nutrient stocks (soil, above ground biomass, litter) were assessed of one-year old fallows with Piper aduncum, Gliricidia sepium and Imperata cylindrica in the humid lowlands of Papua New Guinea. The experiment was conducted on a high base status soil (Typic Eutropepts), and in Papua New Guinea such soils are intensively used for agriculture. Soil samples were taken prior to fallow establisment and after one year when the fallows were slashed and above ground biomass and nutrients measured. The above ground and litter biomass of piper was 13.7 Mg dry matter ha^-1, compared to 23.3 Mg ha^-1 of gliricidia and 14.9 Mg ha^-1 of imperata. Gliricidia produced almost 7 Mg ha^-1 wood. Total above ground biomass returned to the soil when the fallows were slashed was the same for piper and gliricidia (8 Mg ha^-1). Gliricidia accumulated the largest amounts of all major nutrients except for K, which was highest in the above ground piper biomass. Imperata biomass contained the lowest amount of nutrients. The largest stocks of C, N, Ca and Mg were found in the soil, whereas the majority of P was found in the above ground biomass and litter. Almost half of the total K stock of piper and gliricidia was in the biomass. During the fallow period, soil organic C significantly increased under gliricidia fallow whereas no net changes occurred in piper and imperata fallows. The study has shown large differences in biomass and nutrient stocks between the two woody fallows (piper, gliricidia) and between the woody fallows and the non-woody fallow (imperata). Short-term woody fallows are to be preferred above grass (imperata) fallows in the humid lowlands of Papua New Guinea because of higher nutrient stocks.     

Litter and biomass production from planted and natural fallows on a degraded soil in southwestern Nigeria

To rehabilitate a degraded Alfisol at Ibadan, southwestern Nigeria, Senna siamea (non-N-fixing legume tree), Leucaena leucocephala, and Acacia leptocarpa (N-fixing legume trees) were planted in 1989, and Acacia auriculiformis (N-fixing legume tree) in 1990. Pueraria phaseoloides (a cover crop) and natural fallow were included as treatments. Litterfall and climatic variables were measured in 1992/1993 and 1996/1997 while biomass production and nutrient concentrations were measured in 1993 and 1995. Total litter production from the natural and planted fallows was similar, with means ranging from 10.0 (L. leucocephala) to 13.6 t ha⁻¹ y⁻¹ (natural fallow) during the 1996/1997 collection. Leaves constituted 73% (L. leucocephala) to 96% (A. auriculiformis) of total litterfall. Acacia auriculiformis grew most quickly but S. siamea produced the highest aboveground biomass which was 127 t ha⁻¹ accumulated over four years, and 156 t ha⁻¹ accumulated over six years of establishment. The aboveground biomass of P. phaseoloides and natural fallow was only 6 to 9 t ha⁻¹ at six years after planting. Nitrogen concentration in the leaves/twigs of was 2.5% for L. leucocephala, and 2% for other planted species and natural fallow. Pueraria phaseoloides had concentrations of P, K, Ca and Mg comparable to levels in the leaves/twigs of the tree species. Through PATH analysis, it was found that maximum temperature and minimum relative humidity had pronounced direct and indirect effects on litterfall. The effects of these climatic variables in triggering litterfall were enhanced by other variables, such as evaporation, wind, radiation, and minimum temperature. Improvement in chemical properties by fallows was observed in the degraded soil. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Residual effects of fallows on selected soil hydraulic properties in a kaolinitic soil subjected to conventional tillage (CT) and no tillage (NT)

Improved fallows have been used to reduce time required for soil fertility regeneration after cropping in low input agricultural systems. In semi-arid areas of Southern Africa, Acacia angustissima and Sesbania sesban are among some of the more widely used improved fallow species. However the residual effects of improved fallows on soil hydraulic properties during the cropping phase is not known. The aim of this study was to quantify the residual effects of fallows and tillage imposed at fallow termination on soil hydraulic properties (infiltration rates, hydraulic conductivity and soil porosity) during the cropping phase. Treatments evaluated were planted fallows of Acacia angustissima, Sesbania sesban and natural fallow (NF) and continuous maize as a control. Steady state infiltration rates were measured using a double ring infiltrometer and porosity was calculated as the difference between saturated infiltration rates and tension infiltration measurements on an initially saturated soil. Unsaturated hydraulic conductivity (K_o) and mean pore sizes of water conducting pores were measured using tension infiltrometer at tensions of 5 and 10 cm of water on an initially dry soil. While there was no significant difference in steady state infiltration rates from double ring infiltrometer measurements among the fallow treatments, these were significantly higher than the control. The steady state infiltration rates were 36, 67, 59 and 68 mm h^-1 for continuous maize, A. angustissima, S. sesban and NF respectively. Tillage had no significant effect on steady state infiltration rate. Pore density at 5 cm tension was significantly higher in the three fallows than in maize and varied from 285–443 m⁻² in fallows, while in continuous maize the pore density was less than 256 m⁻². At 10 cm tension pore density remained significantly higher in fallows and ranged from 4,521–8,911 m⁻² compared to 2,689–3,938 m⁻² in continuous maize. Unsaturated hydraulic conductivities at 5 cm tension were significantly higher in fallows than in continuous maize and were 0.9, 0.7, 0.8 cm and 0.5 cm h⁻¹ for A. angustissima, S. sesban, NF and continuous maize, respectively. However there were no significant treatment differences at 10 cm tension. Fallows improved infiltration rates, hydraulic conductivity and soil porosity relative to continuous maize cropping. Through fallowing farmers can improve the soils hydraulic properties and porosity, this is important as it affects soil water recharge, and availability for plant growth     

Water balance and maize yield following improved sesbania fallow in eastern Zambia

Sesbania [Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr.] fallows are being promoted as a means for replenishing soil fertility in N-depleted soils of small-scale, resource-poor farmers in southern Africa. Knowledge of soil water distribution in the soil profile and water balance under proposed systems is important for knowing the long-term implications of the systems at plot, field and watershed levels. Soil water balance was quantified for maize (Zea mays L.) following 2-year sesbania fallow and in continuous maize with and without fertilizer during 1998–1999 and 1999–2000 at Chipata in eastern Zambia. Sesbania fallow increased grain yield and dry matter production of subsequent maize per unit amount of water used. Average maize grain yields following sesbania fallow, and in continuous maize with and without fertilizer were 3, 6 and 1 Mg ha⁻¹ with corresponding water use efficiencies of 4.3, 8.8 and 1.7 kg mm⁻¹ ha⁻¹, respectively. Sesbania fallow increased the soil-water storage in the soil profile and drainage below the maximum crop root zone compared with the conventionally tilled non-fertilized maize. However, sesbania fallow did not significantly affect the seasonal crop water use, mainly because rainfall during both the years of the study was above the normal seasonal water requirements of maize (400 to 600 mm). Besides improving grain yields of maize in rotation, sesbania fallows have the potential to recharge the subsoil water through increased subsurface drainage and increase nitrate leaching below the crop root zone in excess rainfall seasons. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Weed seedbank response to planted fallow and tillage in southwest Nigeria

Planted fallows are an alternative to the unsustainable bush fallow for improved soil and weed management in the tropics. However, the interactive effects of planted fallows and tillage on the weed seedbank are not well documented in the tropical environment. The effect of fallow type and tillage on the weed seedbank in the soil was assessed in 1995 and 1996 at Ibadan, southwest Nigeria. The planted fallow species consisted of a herbaceous legume (Pueraria phaseoloides) and three woody legumes (Acacia auriculiformis, Leucaena leucocephala, and Senna siamea). Natural bush fallow and continuous cassava/maize plots were controls. Tillage treatments were minimum tillage and mounding. Continuous maize/cassava plots had the largest weed seedbank in both years. After six years of continuous fallow, the weed seedbank was 86% lower in A. auriculiformis, 79% in P. phaseoloides, 68% in S. siamea, 53% in L. leucocephala, and 35% in natural bush fallow plots than in continuously cultivated plots. Compared to minimum tillage, mounding reduced the seedbank by 47% in 1995 and 66% in 1996. Redundancy analysis showed that tillage contributed significantly to the variance in species composition. Euphorbia hyssopifolia, E. heterophylla, and Cynodon dactylon showed no preference in terms of tillage. Perennial and annual grasses (Digitaria horizontalis, Eleusine indica, Paspalum orbiculare, Cynodon dactylon) with Cyathula prostrata and Desmodium scorpiurus, an annual and perennial broadleaf, respectively, were most abundant in the seedbank of continuously cultivated plots. There were more annual broadleaf weeds in the seedbank of planted fallow plots than in the control plots. Species diversity of the seedbank was greatest in plots under minimum tillage. Mounding as a seedbed preparation method, especially within the improved fallow system, could reduce the high weed pressure experienced by smallholder farmers in southwest Nigeria.     

Weed biomass dynamics in planted fallow systems in the humid forest zone of southern Cameroon

Interest in planted fallow systems has focused on soil fertility improvement, neglecting other potential benefits of such systems. It is important to quantify other processes responsible for crop yield increases under planted fallows, such as weed control. The suppressive potential on weeds of Flemingia macrophylla [(Willd.) Merrill] and Pueraria phaseoloides (Roxb.) Benth, planted fallows was evaluated in field trials in three villages in southern Cameroon. In each village, experiments were set up in 4–5 year-old bush fallow dominated by Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. M. King & H. Rob. and 20 year-old secondary forest. Total aboveground biomass production of P. phaseoloides was 7.45 Mg ha⁻¹, 4.2 times higher than F. macrophylla (1.78 Mg ha⁻¹ ; P < 0.05). The high biomass of P. phaseoloides resulted in a significantly greater reduction in total weed biomass compared to Flemingia macrophylla in both wet and dry seasons. In the wet season (11 and 18 MAP), there were significant fallow system × land use and fallow system × village interactions for total weeds and broadleaf weeds. P. phaseoloides in bush (0.55 Mg ha⁻¹), and P. phaseoloides at Ngoumou (0.09 Mg ha⁻¹) had the lowest total weeds in the wet seasons. After the dry season, the lowest total weed mass was consistently recorded in P. phaseoloides while the highest was in the natural regrowth. The population of grasses was always higher in the F. macrophylla system than in P. phaseoloides system throughout the wet and dry seasons. Grass biomass in the P. phaseoloides-forest LUS was the least (0.01 Mg ha⁻¹), 58 times lower than in F. macrophylla-bush (0.58 Mg ha⁻¹). Biomass production of P. phaseoloides was highly significantly correlated with total weed biomass (r = −0.64; P = 0.004) while no relationship was found between biomass production of F. macrophylla and total weed biomass (r = −0.08, P = 0.747). It was concluded that P. phaseoloides was a suitable leguminous species for weed control. But for F. macrophylla, its low biomass production coupled with a compact plant architecture compromised it as an appropriate species for weed control in a planted fallow system.     

Growth and yield of eight agroforestry tree species in line plantings in Western Kenya and their effect on maize yields and soil properties

Between October 1988 and August 1992, field experiments were carried out in West Kenya to evaluate the suitability of Leucaena leucocephala, L. collinsii, Gliricidia sepium, Calliandra calothyrsus, Sesbania sesban, S. grandiflora, Senna siamea and S. spectabilis to provide a range of agroforestry products and services. The initial objective was to establish the growth rates and wood and leaf yields of these tree species, when planted in single rows. After the initial evaluation, it was evident that valuable additional information could be collected if the trees were converted to hedges and their effect on intercropped maize and soils was studied. At 21 months after planting, different species and provenances ranged in height between 3.5 and 6 m and varied considerably in phenotypic appearance. Wood production (1988–1990) varied from 3 to 33.8 t ha⁻¹ and leaf production varied from 0.62 to 10.1 t ha⁻¹. During intercropping (1990–1992), leaf production varied from 0 to 10.9 t ha⁻¹. Maize yields were higher in association with Leucaena and Gliricidia than with Calliandra, Sesbania and Senna. Cumulative maize grain and stover yields over four seasons were positively correlated with the total amount of tree leaves applied (r² range, 0.70–0.95). The effect of tree leaf mulch on crop yields decreased over time for all species. Leaves with high nutrient contents, which decompose fast (Leucaena, Gliricidia, Sesbania) are likely to have been more effective in sustaining crop yields than leaves with lower nutrient contents (Senna) or more complex decomposition patterns (Calliandra). Simple “leaf input-crop output” budgets to calculate the reserves for N, P and K in different systems explained crop yield differences in some cases. Compared to the fertility status of “zero-mulch” control plots, the status of soil C, N, P, K, Ca, Mg and S was to varying degrees improved under Leucaena, Gliricidia and Sesbania, much less under Calliandra but not under Senna. First season grain yields were related to the soil fertility status at the end of the tree fallow. The results of these experiments suggest that under subhumid tropical conditions with soils of relatively poor nutrient status, where light and water are not likely to be the major limiting factors to crop production, the application of sufficient quantities of high quality tree mulch may positively influence maize yields. When agroforestry tree species with contrasting decomposition and nutrient release patterns are evaluated jointly, it is more difficult to demonstrate a general relationship between quantities of mulch applied and improvements in crop yields and soil fertility levels. Therefore, further chemical, physiological and phenotypic characterization of free species with potential for fallow and intercropping systems is required.     

Substitution of nitrogen requirement of maize through leaf biomass of Leucaena leucocephala: agronomic and economic considerations

In a 3-year field study, the effects of substitution of nitrogen requirement of maize through Leucaena leaves were studied on runoff, soil loss, maize and wheat yield and economic returns. The treatments were (1) 80 kg N ha^-;1 all through Leucaena leaves (80 L), (2) 40 kg N through Leucaena leaves + 40 kg N ha^-;1 through fertilizer (40 L + 40 F), (3) 20 kg N through Leucaena leaves + 60 kg N ha^-;1 through fertilizer (20 L + 60 F), (4) 80 kg N ha^-;1 all through fertilizer (80 F), and (5) control (No fertilizer). Green Leucaena leaf biomass (containing 3.3% N on dry basis) was incorporated every year in 15 cm top soil two weeks before sowing of summer maize.Other treatments being almost equal, runoff was reduced marginally in treatment 20 L + 60 F which was attributed to better crop growth in this treatment. Mean minimum soil loss (6.202 t ha^-;1) also occurred in treatment 20 L + 60 F. Soil loss in 80 L was 13% less than in 80 F. Maize yield was at par in 80 L and 80 F. However, mean maximum yield of maize was obtained with 20 L + 60 F.Residual effect of incorporation of Leucaena leaves to maize crop was observed on wheat yield. The mean yield differences were statistically at par in all the treatments except control. The total mean net returns were statistically at par in 80 L and 80 F. However, significantly higher mean net returns (Rs 6811 ha^-;1; one US$ = Rs30) were obtained with 20 L + 60 F. Substitution of N through Leucaena leaves even in small quantity may be helpful to small holders, particularly where chemical fertilizers are in short supply or too expensive.     

Effects of improved fallow with <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sesbania sesban</Emphasis> on maize productivity and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Striga hermonthica</Emphasis> infestation in Western Kenya

Striga hermonthica is a major constraint to smallholder subsistence agriculture production in the sub-Saharan African region. Low soil fertility and overall environmental degradation has contributed to the build-up of the parasitic weed infestation. Improved cropping systems have to be introduced to address the interrelated problems of S. hermonthica and soil fertility decline. Thus, the effects of improved fallow with leguminous shrub Sesbania sesban on maize yields and levels of S. hermonthica infestation on farm land in the bimodal highlands of western Kenya were investigated. The experimental treatments were arranged in a phased entry, and randomized complete block scheme were six months Sesbania fallow, 18 months Sesbania fallow, six months natural fallow consisting of regrowth of natural vegetation without cultivation, 18 months natural fallow, continuous maize cropping without fertilizer application, and continuous maize cropping with P and N fertilization. Results show that Sesbania fallows significantly (p<0.05) increase maize yield relative to continuous unfertilized maize. S. hermonthica plant populations decrease in continuous maize between the first season (mean = 428 000 ± 63 000 ha⁻¹) and second season (mean=51 000 ± 15 000 ha⁻¹), presumably in response to good weed management. S. hermonthica seed populations in the soil decrease throughout the duration of the experiment in the continuous maize treatments. Short-duration Sesbania fallows can provide modest yield improvements relative to continuous unfertilized maize, but short-duration weedy fallows are ineffective. Continuous maize cultivation with good weed control may provide more effective S. hermonthica control than fallowing.