Vegetation change over 40 years in the Weenen/Muden area,KwaZulu-Natal: evidence from photo-panoramas

The utility of panoramic photographs for studying the extent and pattern of vegetation change, in particular of bush encroachment, was investigated by revisiting thirteen sites in the Weenen and Muden areas of KwaZulu-Natal that had been photographed in 1955. The ubiquitous feature of all sites was the marked increase in woody cover, from a mean of 21% woody cover for all topographic units (plains, hill slopes, river bank and river terrace) in 1955, to 59% woody cover in 1998. Although sample sizes were small, the increase in woody cover was greater on hill slopes (45% mean increase in woody cover) than on the plains (26%), and on north-facing slopes (56%) rather than on south-facing slopes (32%). The increase in woody plant cover was accompanied by a change in composition from open or mixed woodland, to one dominated by Acacia species, in particular by A. tortilis at lower altitudes and by A. karroo at higher altitudes. In some cases, scrub Acacia individuals were already evident in the photographs in 1955, and had grown into mature trees by 1998. Recruitment of both Acacia and broad-leafed species was also observed in 1998 and there was a tendency for bush clumps to develop. Broad-leafed species have dominated on moist south-facing slopes and at higher altitudes. Increases of the arborescent leaf succulents. Aloe spectabilis and Opuntia ficus-indica and of the dwarf, stem succulent shrub, Euphorbia pseudocactus, have occurred. Fire is no longer a component of this landscape which, together with the open condition in 1955, resulting from overgrazing. may account for the vegetation changes that have taken place. Panoramic photographs proved an effective tool for monitoring vegetation change because changes in composition and structure were revealed, and because each photograph samples a large area of ground at an adequate resolution.     

Long-term vegetation change (>20 years) in the plains habitat on the Goegap Nature Reserve,Succulent Karoo,South Africa§

Because vegetation change in arid ecosystems is slow, long-term data are essential to gain an understanding of how the vegetation responds to short-term, inter-annual variation in rainfall; long-term cyclic rainfall patterns; and grazing pressure. The point intercept method was conducted annually over a period of more than 20 years at five transects in the plains habitat on the Goegap Nature Reserve in the Northern Cape, South Africa. Vegetation change was assessed in terms of vegetation cover, species composition, species abundance, growth form composition, range condition and plant diversity. Non-metric multidimensional scaling was used to illustrate the trajectories in floristic data and to determine the strength of the correlations with rainfall and grazing variables. The effects of the high grazing pressure on the plains were apparent in the overall decrease in total plant cover and reductions in the cover of grazing-sensitive species over the monitored period. Diversity parameters, of especially the annual component, were strongly related to rainfall. A directional change, which supports the equilibrium concept, was evident in changes in perennial species composition over time. The annual component, however, showed no directional change, but displayed eventdriven, non-equilibrium dynamics by fluctuating in reaction to the timing and quantity of rainfall.     

Growth in three Karoo shrub species under various grazing treatments: the tracking of marked individuals over 25 years

Growth studies of long-lived shrubs are uncommon. In semi-arid rangelands, livestock and wildlife grazing influence growth processes and may interact with changing climate. Tierberg-LTER, excluded from livestock since 1987, and two adjacent ranches allowed for a comparative growth study of three shrub species (Osteospermum sinuatum – palatable, Pteronia empetrifolia – moderately palatable, and P. pallens – unpalatable) across contrasting present ungulate herbivory (none in exclosures, wildlife only, or livestock and wildlife combined) and past livestock herbivory (moderate and overgrazed). Marked individuals were measured at irregular intervals over 25 years. Stem basal diameter (mm), height (m) and two canopy diameters (m) were measured at the onset of the study and in 2014. Mean basal diameter growth (mm y^?1) varied between species and treatments. Change in mean attribute values was influenced by interactions with grazing history and treatments. Some historical and grazing treatments had a negative effect on the palatable O. sinuatum and no significant effect on moderately palatable P. empetrifolia or unpalatable P. pallens. The age of the originally marked individuals are unknown but >70% of these individuals survived over the 25-year period. Our results support previous findings that dwarf shrubs in deserts are slow growing and long lived, and that grazing regime affects plant growth.     

Livestock Grazing Impacts on Desert Vegetation,Khirthar National Park,Pakistan

The impact of livestock grazing on desert vegetation in Khirthar National Park, Pakistan, was investigated by comparing dry and wet season plant species composition, richness, cover, and a grazing index for quadrats outside (“open”) and inside (“exclosed”) native mammal breeding enclosures that had excluded livestock for 6 years. A total of 93 plant species were recorded in the dry season, 88 species in exclosed quadrats and 50 in open quadrats. While only 5 species were unique to open quadrats, 43 species were found only in the exclosed quadrats. Species richness was higher in the exclosures because of the presence of more grass and herb species, while grazing was higher in the open. After rain, species richness and cover were significantly higher than in the dry season because of the growth of summer ephemeral herbs and grasses, but richness was no longer different between the exclosure and open treatments. Although some herbaceous species may have been adversely affected by livestock grazing, overall species richness suggests strong ecosystem resilience to grazing, with levels no different after seasonal rains regardless of grazing level. Many grass and herb species absent from open sites during the dry season reappeared after rain, which suggests that livestock grazing may eliminate them as the dry season proceeds, but that a soil seed or bud bank persists.     

Measuring the impact of indigenous herbivores: reply to Kerley andLandman

Pteronia paniculata is an indigenous, unpalatable shrub that invades mismanaged Karooveld, resulting in degraded rangelands with low species diversity and grazing potential. We conducted a series of trials in the Succulent Karoo Randteveld near Barrydale to determine if the uniform defoliation of P. paniculata dominated vegetation at two heights (0.05 m and 0.20 m above ground level) using a brush-cutter and, in one trial, application of a second cut will improve the plant species composition, productivity and grazing capacity of the veld. Brush-cutting treatments and the uncut control all resulted in a change in species composition towards greater species diversity and more palatable species and an average increase of 540 kg ha^?1 (28%) in above-ground biomass over four years. It appears that there was a pervasive improvement in species composition associated with a general decline in the cover and abundance of P. paniculata over the time-scale of the present study that was not influenced by the defoliation treatments, except for the 1996-cut treatment where the cover of P. paniculata increased. The absence of propagules of palatable species in the soil seed bank and competition from P. paniculata (a long-lived, perennial shrub) are assumed to be among the main reasons for the lack of response of the vegetation community to the defoliation treatments. Brush-cutting (in the absence of reseeding), aimed at reducing the dominance of unpalatable karoo shrubs, was more costly but not significantly better than long-term resting in improving veld composition or forage production.     

Grassland Community Composition Response to Grazing Intensity Under Different Grazing Regimes

Grazing plays a key role in many ecosystems worldwide and can affect the structure and composition of terrestrial plant communities. Nonetheless, how grazing management, especially grazing regime (yearlong continuous and seasonal grazing), affects the relationship between grazing and vegetation on alpine grasslands has not been extensively studied. Here, we performed a grazing experiment in Gangcha county of Qinghai province of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau to test the effects of different stocking rates and grazing regimes on grassland biomass and plant structure and composition. Six stocking rates (ranging from 0 to 5.62 sheep ha^? 1) were used for continuous grazing, and three grazing intensities (1.72, 2.87, and 5.62 sheep ha^? 1) were used for seasonal grazing (grazed only in the growing season, from June to October) at the study sites. Plant biomass and grass functional community composition were characterized in two different yr (2011 and 2012). Additionally, species richness and plant diversity indexes were estimated to quantify the impacts of grazing on plant community composition. Our results indicated that grazing intensity best explained the plant biomass decrease in low-productivity environments, and different grazing regimes also influenced these results. The shifts in plant community structure and composition in response to increased grazing intensity differed considerably between continuous grazing and seasonal grazing. Seasonal grazing maintained greater amounts of palatable plant species, and fewer undesirable species in plant communities when compared with the composition after continuous grazing. Our results emphasize the importance of grazing regime in regulating the effects of grazing on plant communities and the importance of seasonal grazing for ecosystem maintenance, especially in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. This suggests that periodic resting of grasslands could be a good management strategy to keep palatable species, thereby minimizing undesirable species in the overall species composition.     

Effect of continuous grazing in the dohne sourveld on species composition and basal cover

Abstract

In a grazing trial conducted at the Dohne Agricultural Research Station, natural grassland was grazed continuously for 36 years with cattle. In a second investigation conducted on similar grassland, paddocks were grazed or rested, in all combinations of the four seasons of the year, over a ten year period. Changes in botanical composition and cover of the sward were monitored at regular intervals. The results of these investigations indicate that under a regime of non‐selective grazing the composition of Dohne Sourveld is remarkably stable. After 36 years of continuous grazing the species composition of the sward was largely maintained. Floristically Dohne Sourveld is dominated by a small number of grass species of which Andropogon appendiculatus, Elionurus muticus, Heteropogon contortus, Sporobolus africanus, Themeda triandra and Tristachya leucothrix are the most important. These species react differently to under‐utilization or increasingly severe defoliation, enabling them to be classified into decreaser or increaser categories. Severe defoliation resulted in a marked decrease in basal cover but only small changes in relative species composition. As the intensity of defoliation increases, decrease in grass cover is associated with an increase of forbs, such as Senecio retrorsus.     

不同利用方式天然草原地上植被特征变化研究

以不同类型天然草原为研究对象,研究禁牧封育、冷季放牧和常年放牧三种利用方式对地上生物量和物种丰富度的影响。结果表明：常年放牧显著降低了高寒草甸和温性草原地上生物量（P＜0.05）,且禁牧和冷季放牧之间差异不显著（P＜0.05）,冷季放牧显著降低了温性荒漠草原地上生物量（P＜0.05）;禁牧高寒草甸和温性草原物种丰富度显著低于常年放牧（P＜0.05）,禁牧和冷季放牧对温性荒漠草原物种丰富度无显著影响（P＜0.05）。     

Impact of Prosopis (mesquite) invasion and clearing on vegetation species composition and diversity in semi-arid Nama-Karoo rangeland,South Africa

The Nama-Karoo biome occupies 28% of South Africa’s land area. Alien leguminous trees of the genus Prosopis have invaded large tracts of Nama-Karoo rangeland. We evaluated the impact of Prosopis invasion and clearing on vegetation species composition and diversity (alien and indigenous species richness and cover) in Nama-Karoo rangeland on two sheep farms in the Beaufort West district of the Western Cape province of South Africa. Our results suggest that Prosopis invasion and clearing can significantly change Nama-Karoo rangeland species composition. Invasion and clearing appear to have no effect on alien species richness. Invasion, however, increases alien species cover, while clearing restores it to pre-invasion levels. In contrast, invasion reduces indigenous species richness while clearing restores it to pre-invasion levels. Invasion appears to have no effect on indigenous species cover. This lack of effect appears to be the serendipitous result of a site-specific trade-off between a decline in cover of grasses that are negatively affected by Prosopis invasion and a concomitant increase in the cover of positively affected grasses. Clearing increases indigenous species cover to above pre-invasion levels. The higher than usual indigenous species cover after clearing could be a transient legacy of Prosopis soil nutrient enrichment.     

Influence of stocking rate and grazing system on plant basal cover and botanical composition of veld in the northern cape 1

Abstract

Changes in basal cover and botanical composition were recorded at four stocking rates, both under continuous and rotational grazing in the Northern Cape. The experiment was conducted with cattle. Results suggested that heavier stocking rates could be applied under rotational grazing than under continuous grazing without veld deterioration occuring. After four seasons, botanical composition deteriorated only under continuous grazing. Plant basal cover decreased significantly at the heavy stocking rates, both under rotational and continuous grazing. This result illustrates the danger of grazing strategies based on an injudicious increase in stock numbers.

Basal cover was found to be a better indicator of trends in veld condition than botanical composition, despite annual fluctuations resulting from rainfall variability. Changes in the botanical composition apparently occur only where veld deterioration is more advanced.     

Clipping by Plateau Pikas and Impacts to Plant Community

Plateau pikas (Ochotona curzoniae) often clip tall plants near active burrow entrances to detect and avoid predators. This clipping behavior influencing plant communities near active burrow entrances has not been well documented. A field experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of this clipping behavior on plant communities across three sites in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau by comparing plant communities near active burrow entrances with communities near abandoned burrow entrances. This study showed that the clipping behavior decreased plant community height and increased plant cover and species richness of the community and had no effect on plant community biomass across three sites or at each site. This study further showed that clipping behavior decreased the plant biomass of the graminoid group and had no effect on the plant species richness of the graminoid group, whereas it increased the plant biomass and plant species richness of the forb group across the three sites or at each site. These findings suggest that a general pattern concerning the effect of the clipping behavior can increase plant species richness and decrease the grazing quality of alpine meadows near active burrow entrances.     

Tallgrass Prairie Plant Community Dynamics Along a Canopy Cover Gradient of Eastern Redcedar (Juniperus virginiana L.)

North American grasslands make up less than 75% of their historic pre-European settlement area, and they continue to be converted to woodlands by woody plant encroachment. Conversion of grassland to woodland alters nutrient cycling, water use, and light penetration, which drives herbaceous plant community dynamics. Because studies examining this relationship among Juniperus species are limited largely to individual trees, we designed a study to examine the relationship between stand-level canopy cover of eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana L.) and the herbaceous plant community. We documented herbaceous plant species composition, abundance, and biomass within a North American tallgrass prairie invaded by eastern redcedar in which canopy cover of eastern redcedar ranged from 0% to 80%. Herbaceous species richness declined as a function of increased canopy cover of eastern redcedar and subsequent loss of open space, but this decrease in species richness closely followed a species–area model. Moreover, composition of C₃ and C₄ grasses and forbs did not change with increasing canopy cover. Herbaceous biomass, which declined with increasing canopy cover, varied most within those plots with intermediate canopy cover. While we found that species richness and biomass declined as canopy cover increased, the decline followed a species–area relationship and was without abrupt change typical of ecological thresholds. We recommend additional research with removal of eastern redcedar trees over a range of canopy cover to assess restoration potential along the encroachment gradient.     

Avian Community Response to Grazing Intensity on Monoculture and Mixed Florida Pastures

Monoculture and mixed pastures in Florida provide habitat for a variety of resident and migratory bird species. The objectives of this study were to investigate the effects of grazing on vegetation structure and bird species richness and abundance in grazed monoculture and mixed pastures. Study pasture units were subject to four cattle grazing intensities: 0 = nongrazed (control), 15 = low, 20 = medium, or 35 = high animal units (AU) per pasture unit (no cattle, 1.3, 1.0, and 0.6 ha · AU^?1, on monoculture pastures and no cattle, 2.1, 1.6, and 0.9 ha · AU^?1, on mixed pastures). Monoculture pastures displayed a greater decrease in spatial heterogeneity of the vegetative community in the presence of grazing than mixed pastures. An increase in grazing intensity led to declines in total avian species richness and abundance and species richness within short-distance migrant, neotropical migrant, and permanent resident guilds on monoculture pastures. Declines in total species richness and abundance and neotropical migrant guild species richness and abundance were observed on mixed pastures subject to increasing grazing intensity. However, species richness within short-distance migrant and urban guilds and abundance within the grassland guild increased on this pasture type in the presence of grazing. Loss of spatial heterogeneity typically results in a lack of suitable habitat for birds that occupy the extremes of the vegetation structure gradient. This can lead to a loss of species richness and abundance. For the majority of avian guilds, a low grazing intensity of 1.3 ha · AU^?1 and 2.1 ha · AU^?1 on monoculture and mixed pasture, respectively, is recommended to maintain abundance. However, these grazing intensities may result in declines in species richness. Ultimately, if a range of avian species are to be supported on monoculture and mixed pastures, spatial heterogeneity of plant structure and composition must be maintained.     

Collective management on communal grazing lands: Its impact on vegetation attributes and soil erosion in the upper Blue Nile basin,northwestern Ethiopia

Collective action, on communal grazing land, has evolved in the highlands of northwestern Ethiopia to mitigate the problems of feed shortage and land degradation due to overgrazing. The exercise is liked by farmers for improving the availability of natural pasture during the long dry season when other feed sources get depleted. However, large portions of the communal grazing lands are still managed under free grazing throughout the year. This study was undertaken in Maynet village in the upper Blue Nile basin, northwestern Ethiopia, to assess the impacts of three different types of grazing land management (GLM) and two slope gradients (<10%; 15–25%) on aboveground herbaceous biomass yield, ground cover, species richness, runoff, soil loss and soil bulk density of grazing lands. The GLMs include (a) freely open communal GLM, (b) restricted communal GLM – collective management of communal grazing land locally named as ‘yebere sar’ and (c) private holding GLM. Stocking density was more than carrying capacity of grazing lands across all GLMs. However, the extent of overstocking problem was exceptionally severe in freely open communal GLM. The interaction between GLM and slope was significant (P<0.05) for runoff, soil loss and runoff coefficient. The average runoff coefficient was close to 50% in freely open communal GLM on steeper slopes (15–25%). Freely open communal GLM on steeper slopes resulted in consistently highest cumulative runoff and soil loss amounting to 491 mm and 32 t/ha per year, respectively. Polynomial regression analysis showed that quadratic relationship (r²=0.87) existed between soil loss and runoff. But, soil loss was close to nil when runoff did not exceed 2 mm per rainfall event. As expected, restricted communal GLM appeared to reduce surface runoff by more than 40% and curb the rate of soil erosion by more than 50% compared to freely open communal GLM. Its vegetation cover persisted above 70% throughout the year, meeting the threshold level recommended to keep surface runoff and soil loss to minimum. Reducing the problem of overstocking and pasture resting in August–November are important components to improve ground cover and aboveground herbaceous biomass yield, which in turn reduce land degradation on grazing lands.     

Impacts of non-selective grazing on cover,composition, and productivity of Nama-karoo grassy shrubland

The non-selective rotational grazing system has undergone a long and controversial development. The merits of this grazing system, where relatively large numbers of livestock are herded into numerous small paddocks for short timespans with long rests between grazings, have not been formally evaluated in a long-term monitoring experiment in the Karoo. In this study we used exclosures (controls) on a 7 000 ha farm in the Central Lower Karoo, camped into approximately 50-ha paddocks, to evaluate the impact of this grazing system on certain vegetation parameters. We report on the first four years of monitoring, after each of four replicate paddocks had received four treatments (one treatment = 40 - 60 Large Stock Unit grazing days per hectare over a period of 2 - 16 days). Concentrated defoliation with concomitant trampling, dunging, and urinating did not influence the perennial species composition, and cover of this grassy, semi-arid shrubland. Changes over time in plant composition, and cover are explained by annual, and short-term (e.g. quarterly) rainfall rather than by grazing impacts. Ephemerals were not favoured by this grazing system, but litter was more abundant in the treatment than the control areas. The dominant grass, Eragrostis lebmanniana, and shrub, Pentzia incana, are resilient to this defoliation regime, and show signs of compensatory growth. As yet there is no evidence that non-selective grazing increases diversity, but the severe defoliation and trampling may enhance the biomass turnover rate, resulting in more vigorous, and productive plants in the grazed areas. Diversity is unlkely to change rapidly in response to grazing, largely because of the persistence of grazing-tolerant perennials. Concentrating mixed herds of livestock onto small areas with lengthy rests can be a useful tool for 'kick-starting' moribund karoo veld into greater productivity. Several of the impacts hold potential for restoring the rangeland quality of degraded areas, but this needs to be tested.     

Assessing the success of experimental rehabilitation on a coastal mineral sands mine in Namaqualand,South Africa§

The success of different rehabilitation treatments following surface mining on the arid west coast of South Africa was assessed. Treatments consisting of one or a combination of topsoil addition, plant translocation and seeding were applied to experimental rehabilitation sites in 2001, while the treatment of another site in 2008 combined all three techniques. Vegetation and species cover, species richness, diversity and evenness, and grazing capacity of rehabilitation sites were sampled during winter 2009 and summer 2010, and compared with a reference site. All rehabilitated sites achieved the objective to attain a minimum grazing capacity of 20 ha per small stock unit. Rehabilitation trials were successful in establishing a vegetation cover, but were unable to return species richness and diversity to reference levels and did not resemble the reference site in species composition. Common species in reference sites were absent or only occurred in low numbers. No treatment outperformed the others and further experimentation is needed to determine the most suitable combination. It is recommended that rehabilitation should be done in multiple stages in future to improve seedling survival and to return species that are unable to establish in the adverse conditions present at the onset of rehabilitation.     

高山草原放牧率与群落物种丰富度

选择甘肃省肃南裕固族自治县甘肃马鹿(Cervus elaphus kansuensis)养殖场冬季牧场不同牧压梯度的6个样地,采用巢式样方法调查草地植物群落的物种数,研究了甘肃马鹿山地草原放牧系统放牧率与草地群落物种丰富度的关系。结果表明,放牧强度梯度上,冬季牧场物种数随取样面积的增大而逐渐增加,放牧减轻导致物种增幅上升,放牧对物种丰富度的贡献率提高。高山草原的最小取样面积为0.71～1.54 m2,各放牧率样地物种数的变化分别在0.16～0.32和0.32～0.64 m2范围内最剧烈。物种数随放牧增强呈下降趋势,在放牧率2.45 AUM·hm-2出现拐点,拐点两侧放牧对物种多样性具有不同的作用规律,2.45 AUM·hm-2为高山草原适宜的放牧率。在牧场尺度上,当面积超过2.56 m2,改善放牧管理对物种丰富度的增加没有作用。     

不同轮牧方式对荒漠草原植物群落特征的影响

研究轮牧方式对草地植被特征的影响,可为草地合理放牧提供科学依据。在宁夏荒漠草原,以载畜率0.75只·hm^-2为水平,以围封禁牧草地为对照(CK),对连续放牧(CG)、二区轮牧(TG)、四区轮牧(FG)和六区轮牧(SG)方式下草地物种植被组成、群落盖度、生物量、净初级生产力、物种多样性以及群落稳定性进行研究。结果表明:1)轮牧使荒漠草原优良牧草重要值下降,但可增加植物物种种类;增加轮牧分区有利于优良牧草和多年生草本重要值的保持,但对半灌木的影响较小;2)植被盖度以封育和四区轮牧较高,地上生物量和净初级生产力以四区轮牧和六区轮牧草地较高,地下生物量以封育和六区轮牧处理较高,草地凋落物量以封育较高;3)轮牧可增加物种丰富度、多样性以及优势度,但群落均匀度指数下降;4)各处理下植物群落均不稳定,相比之下,围封禁牧群落稳定性最高,连续放牧最低。综合植被特征和生产中的便利性,研究认为四区轮牧是研究区最适宜的轮牧方式。     

The grazing index method of range condition assessment

Abstract

Owing to the difficulty of examining succession theory in the Karoo, it is suggested the ecological index method (EIM), be replaced by the grazing index method (GIM), through the introduction of grazing index values (GIV) for Karoo plant species. The GIM may provide more acceptable range condition scores and more realistic estimates of the current grazing capacity. Using GIVs, arrived at by scoring the agronomic attributes of the plant species (productivity, forage value, perenniality), the estimated current grazing capacities are found to be closely similar to the grazing capacity norms established for the different agro‐ecological areas in the Karoo. The manner in which the range condition survey is conducted and the application of the grazing index method, ensures the computation of a figure representative of the agronomic potential of the area to support livestock. The cover figure and the range condition score determined for a sample site, can be employed in monitoring the trend in changes in the vegetation, brought about by climatic and biotic variables. Grazing capacity norms are closely related to median annual precipitation (r² = 0.98). The GIM is more closely related to grazing capacities than the EIM (r² = 0.96 and 0.68 respectively).     

Diverse Management Strategies Produce Similar Ecological Outcomes on Ranches in Western Great Plains: Social-Ecological Assessment

Experiments investigating grazing systems have often excluded ranch-scale decision making, which has limited our understanding of the processes and consequences of adaptive management. We conducted interviews and vegetation monitoring on 17 ranches in eastern Colorado and eastern Wyoming to investigate rancher decision-making processes and the associated ecological consequences. Management variables investigated were grazing strategy, grazing intensity, planning style, and operation type. Ecological attributes included the relative abundance of plant functional groups and categories of ground cover. We examined the environmental and management correlates of plant species and functional group composition using nonmetric multidimensional scaling and linear mixed models. After accounting for environmental variation across the study region, species composition did not differ between grazing management strategy and planning style. Operation type was significantly correlated with plant community composition. Integrated cow-calf plus yearling operations had greater annual and less key perennial cool-season grass species cover relative to cow-calf − only operations. Integrated cow-calf plus yearling ranches were able to more rapidly restock following drought compared with cow-calf operations. Differences in types of livestock operations contributed to variability in plant species composition across the landscape that may support diverse native faunal species in these rangeland ecosystems. Three broad themes emerged from the interviews: 1) long-term goals, 2) flexibility, and 3) adaptive learning. Stocking-rate decisions appear to be slow, path-dependent choices that are shaped by broader social, economic, and political dynamics. Ranchers described having greater flexibility in altering grazing strategies than ranch-level, long-term, annual stocking rates. These results reflect the complexity of the social-ecological systems ranchers navigate in their adaptive decision-making processes. Ranch decision-making process diversity within these environments precludes development of a single “best” strategy to manage livestock grazing.