A survey to identify economic opportunities for smallholder dairy farms in Bangladesh

Identified economic opportunities for planning interventions greatly increase farmers’ compliance with an extension programme. We investigated opportunities for interventions to increase dairy farmers’ income in four areas of Bangladesh, including the districts of Mymensingh, Khulna-Satkhira, Sirajgonj-Pabna and Chittagong. The data were collected from 1440 dairy farms at a one-day visit and were summarized as the difference between management targets and each herd’s calculated management indices. The average number of lactating cows, feed cost as a percentage of income from milk, milk sold as percentage of milk produced, lactating cows as a percentage of mature cows, and lactating cows as a percentage of total cattle varied from 1.5 to 3.4, from 52.5% to 92.1%, from 78.7% to 92.6%, from 81.9% to 86.7% and from 34.3% to 37.7%, respectively. The average age at first calving, calf production interval, lactation length, and milk production were 35.0–44.3 months, 14.0–17.6 months, 249–286 days and 3.5–7.2 litres, respectively, depending on the locality. The average cost for producing 100 litres of milk was 18.9–35.1 US dollars. The production cost increased when daily milk production per cow decreased (r² = 0.43–0.55). Management improvements directed towards increasing average milk production per cow per day, increasing lactation length, decreasing age to first calving, and decreasing calf production interval could expect to yield an average income increase up to a range of 676.3–1730.6 US dollars depending on the milk-producing area.     

An economic opportunity survey of small dairy farms in Paraguay

Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) in 15 small farms and an economic opportunity survey (EOS) in 13 were carried out in the Cordillera basin of Paraguay to identify production constraints and the best ways to achieve economic gain. PRA showed farmers’ perception was that nutrition was the main constraint. The EOS showed that over 70% of the milk produced was sold in the neighbourhood. The average number of adult cows (lactating and dry cows) per farm ranged from 15 to 120, of which 62.2% to 80% were lactating cows. Milk production per cow on one day ranged from 8.5 to 18.2 litres and average lactation length was more than 300 days. Average age at first calving varied from 31 to 39 months. The highest economic opportunity was observed for increased milk production. Age at first calving and calf production interval were also found to be important constraints. Ultrasonography survey of the ovaries 20 maiden heifers over six months showed inadequate activity. Partially budgeted interventions were instituted to improve nutrition and management of maiden heifers, in-calf cows and those in early lactation. More forages were grown. PRA and EOS were shown to be useful tools in identifying production constraints.     

Radioimmunoassay of milk progesterone as a tool for fertility control in smallholder dairy farms

This study focused on the use of radioimmunoassay of progesterone in milk for the diagnosis of post-partum ovarian cyclicity and accurate detection of oestrus and non-pregnancy in cows in the artificial insemination (AI) programme in Bangladesh. In Investigation 1, milk samples were collected on day 0 (day of AI), day 9–13 and day 21–24 from 444 milking cows of various breeds presented for the first post-partum insemination by 413 farmers living at 182 villages/regions in Mymensingh District from 6 AI centres and sub-centres. Each cow was then examined three times after each AI until it stopped returning to oestrus. Sixty to 90 days after the last AI, the cows were examined per rectum to confirm the pregnancy. Milk progesterone data on day 21–24 contributed to a clear diagnosis with respect to non-pregnancy in 100% cows, indicating a possible use of this progesterone assay for identifying non-pregnant cows in AI programmes. In Investigation 2, milk progesterone was monitored two times in a month with a 10-day interval in 88 cows. The samples were taken between 10 days after calving and the first detected oestrus, followed by two more samples 10 days apart. The proportion of cows accurately detected in oestrus was 30%. Another 30% were stated to be in oestrus when they were not (false positive) and 40% were not detected when they were in oestrus (false negative). The mean intervals between calving and oestrus and between calving luteal activity were 40 to 362 days (median = 120, n = 82) and 34 to 398 (median = 111, n = 64) days, respectively. The body condition scores at calving and at the initiation of luteal activity influenced the interval between calving and luteal activity (p < 0.05). Cows suckled twice daily initiated luteal activity earlier than their counterparts suckled several times daily (p < 0.05). Determination of progesterone in milk on day 21–24 is a good means for detecting non-pregnant cows.     

Impact of management interventions on smallholder dairy farms of the western highlands of cameroon

A study was carried out to evaluate the impact of interventions to solve constraints in smallholder dairy farms of the Western Highlands of Cameroon. The interventions consisted of improved breeding through introduction of artificial insemination, better feed supplementation, farmers training in milk processing and better veterinary services. Results show that there was a decrease in average monthly expenditures of 18% relative to the month before interventions started. Much of the expenditures were related to feed (38% of all costs). There was an overall increase in farm income. Close to 2/3 of the income were derived from milk products from home processed milk and culled animals. Only 7% income came from milk sold to the processing plant. The partial budget shows that before interventions, farmers lost $4.5/cow/month but gained $38/cow/month because of the interventions. The return was 2.32 and included opportunity income for milk home consumed and shared. When this opportunity income was ignored, the return stood at 1.93. The positive impact of interventions led to poverty alleviation and some farmers acquired more cows. A spill over effect is that more crop farmers are willing to be engaged at least partially in dairy farming. It will be good if many more farmers could benefit from these interventions.     

Cost analysis of immunisation against East Coast fever on smallholder dairy farms in Kenya

A spreadsheet model was developed and used to estimate the total cost of immunising cattle against East Coast fever (ECF) based on the infection-and-treatment method. Using data from an immunisation trial carried out on 102 calves and yearlings on 64 farms in the Githunguri division, Kiambu district, Kenya, a reference base scenario of a mean herd of five animals, a 10% rate of reaction to immunisation and a 2-day interval monitoring regimen (a total of 10 farm visits) was simulated. Under these conditions, the mean cost of immunisation per animal was US$16.48 (Ksh 955.78); this was equivalent to US$82.39 (Ksh 4778.90) per five-animal farm. A commonly reported reactor rate of 3% would decrease the cost to US$14.63 (Ksh 848.29) per animal. Reducing the number of farm monitoring visits from 10 to 7 would reduce the total cost by 10%, justified if farmers are trained to undertake some of the monitoring work. The fixed costs were 53% of the total cost of immunisation per farm. The cost of immunisation decreased with increasing number of animals per farm, showing economies of scale.     

Economic opportunity survey of small scale dairy farms of the north west province of Cameroon

An Economic Opportunity Survey was conducted on dairy farms in the North West Province of Cameroon. Results showed that median (range) number of cows in milk per farm was zero point six (0–4) and six (3–12) in the zero grazing and transhumance systems, respectively. Medians (range) of three (0–24) and four (3–10) litres of milk were sold per farm per day, corresponding to 30% and 60% of milk produced. 24% and 13% of total cattle per herd were milking cows in the zero grazing and transhumance systems respectively. Median milk production per cow on one day was two (0–25) and two (1–3) litres. Median calf production interval was 14.5 (12–25) and. 21.5 (14–29) months. More milk produced per day represented the best economic opportunity in both systems while reduced age at first calving and longer lactation length were the next in both. Wastage of milk through spoilage from poor hygiene and lack of cooling was a major problem. Holstein cows, which were in the zero grazing system, had unexpectedly short lactations. Constraints identified led to the setting up of interventions of training and advice for farmers and of better nutrition.     

The impact of Theileria parva infections and other factors on calf mean daily weight gains in smallholder dairy farms in Murang'a District, Kenya

The association between mean daily weight gain, Theileria parva infections, clinical East Coast fever and other possible determinants of weight gain were examined in a longitudinal observational study that was conducted in cohorts of female calves from five agro-ecological zone (AEZ)-grazing strata. The strata were upper-midlands (UM) 1 zero-grazing, UM 1 open-grazing, UM 2 zero-grazing, UM 4 zero-grazing and UM 4 open-grazing. In total, 225 calves on 188 smallholder dairy farms were visited within the first 2 weeks of life and thereafter at biweekly intervals up to the age of 6 months between March 1995 and August 1996. During each visit, the calves were weighed and other calf-management practices in the farm during the visit such as housing, feeding and tick control also were recorded. Other events such as morbidity and mortality between or during the visits were also recorded.

The overall mean daily weight gains were 0.24–0.29 kg (S.D.=0.17–0.22 kg) and were lower than the recommended targets for smallholder farms of 0.40–0.50 kg. The major tendency in variability of daily weight gains was due to visit-to-visit variation (especially in calves >3 months old).

Differences in mean daily gains were associated with AEZ-grazing strata and calf-level factors that included breed of calf, calf sickness, incidence of ECF, feeding of milk, concentrate feeds and minerals and interaction between calf age and AEZ-grazing strata (P<0.05). ECF and other calf sicknesses exerted a temporal effect on calf-growth at the height of illness and immediately after; calves later recovered the lost growth except where other factors such as poor calf nutrition prevailed. Improvement in calf-growth in Murang’a District is achievable and extension services should continue to target individual-calf-level management practices.     

Integrated approach for improving small scale market oriented dairy systems in Pakistan: participatory rural appraisal and economic opportunity survey

Livestock production is an integral part of the rain-fed and irrigated agriculture system in Pakistan. Animal production is closely interlinked with the cropping systems and play a crucial role in the rural economy. Participatory rural appraisals and economic opportunity surveys were conducted in two ecological zones (irrigated and rain-fed) and two dairy production systems (peri-urban and mixed livestock). Major constraints in animal health, nutrition and reproduction were identified and interventions were suggested to overcome these difficulties. The economic opportunity survey revealed that maximum opportunity to enhance farmers’ income is to increase milk production per day per animal, which can be accomplished through coordinated improvements in nutrition, reproduction and genetics.     

Bovine mastitis and antibiotic resistance patterns in Selalle smallholder dairy farms, central Ethiopia

A study was conducted to determine the prevalence of mastitis, identify the major bacterial pathogens and test the antimicrobial resistance of milk bacterial isolates in smallholder dairy farms in Selalle area, Ethiopia. A total of 109 smallholder dairy farms comprising 500 crossbred lactating cows were included. The prevalence of clinical mastitis at herd, cow and quarter level was 8.3% (n = 9), 1.8% (n = 9) and 0.51% (n = 10), respectively, while that of sub-clinical mastitis was 54.7%, 22.3% and 10.1%, respectively. The univariate logistic regression showed that among the risk factors considered, presence of teat lesion, stage of lactation and parity number had significant effect on the prevalence of sub-clinical mastitis. However, after multivariate analysis, only presence of teat lesion and stage of lactation had significant effect. The common isolates from the clinical mastitic quarters were St. agalactiae (30%, n = 3) and St. dysgalactiae (30%, n = 3), while from sub-clinical cases were S. aureus (42.6%, n = 83), S. epidermidis (22.1%, n = 43), St. agalactiae (12.8%, n = 25) and St. uberis (10.3%, n = 20). Staphylococcus intermedius and Streptococcus dysgalactiae were the species, which showed high level of susceptibility for most of the antimicrobials tested, while the remaining had varying levels of resistance for almost all the antimicrobials used. Among the antimicrobials employed, erythromycin and sulphonamide showed the lowest proportion of resistant isolates. Considering the possible significant economic losses that could be incurred by both clinical and sub-clinical mastitis, attention should be paid for further detailed investigations including the economic losses and benefits of interventions in the study area.     

Participatory Livestock Farmer Training for improvement of animal health in rural and peri-urban smallholder dairy herds in Jinja,Uganda

Within the framework of a research project investigating methods to decrease mastitis incidence, farmer groups for participatory training in a modified Farmer Field School approach were initiated in order to improve animal health and farmer knowledge in mastitis control technologies in smallholder dairy farms in the Jinja district of Uganda. Two peri-urban groups and one rural group met for common learning and training two hours per fortnight during a 12-month period, facilitated by two local extension agents together with one or two scientists from Makerere University. Farmers rotated each time between farms owned by group participants, which demanded mutual trust, openness and respect. From their own assessment the farmers felt they had improved their milk production and reduced mastitis incidence on their farms. In an evaluation workshop, they articulated how they had built up common knowledge and experience from training in systematic clinical examination of animals, evaluation of the farm environments, and identification of improvements. Much of the acquired new knowledge was about basic dairy cow management and husbandry practices. In addition, they gave examples of how they were now used as resource persons in their local communities. Principles of learning and empowerment are discussed.     

Reproductive performances of dairy cows in smallholder production system in Selalle, Central Ethiopia

A study was conducted to assess the reproductive performance and factors that influence reproductive efficiency of cows in smallholder dairy farms in Selalle, Central Ethiopia. Three hundred dairy farms (average herd size = 8) were visited and data on reproductive, breeding and management histories were collected and analysed. The overall geometric means for calving to conception interval (n = 382) and duration after last calving (n = 422) were 187 and 201 days in pregnant and non-pregnant cows, respectively. The least-squares mean calving to conception interval was higher (p < 0.05) in mixed crop–livestock production (MCLP) than in small urban dairy production (SUDP) systems and was lower (p < 0.01) in non-suckling than in suckling cows. District significantly influenced (p < 0.01) the least-squares mean duration after last calving and, among the districts, non-pregnant cows in Wuchale-Jida had the highest values, whereas cows in Sululta and Mulo had the lowest values. The overall average number of services per conception (±SD) and the first service conception rate were 1.6 ± 1.0 (n = 382) and 56% (n = 456), respectively. The prevalences of abortion, dystocia (assisted parturition), retained fetal membrane, vulval discharge/endometritis and pre-weaning calf mortality were 1.4%, 1.3%, 5.4%, 2.8% and 17.4%, respectively. The present estimates of extended calving to conception interval and duration after last calving indicate poor reproductive performances of cows in Selalle smallholder dairy farms. The pre-weaning calf mortality rate is highly significant. Accordingly, a further detailed investigation is necessary to identify and quantify the specific reproductive disorders and associated interacting factors attributing to such poor performance and to determine the causes and predisposing factors behind such high calf mortality.     

The impact of Theileria parva infections and other factors on calf mean daily weight gains in smallholder dairy farms in Murang’a District, Kenya

The association between mean daily weight gain, Theileria parva infections, clinical East Coast fever and other possible determinants of weight gain were examined in a longitudinal observational study that was conducted in cohorts of female calves from five agro-ecological zone (AEZ)-grazing strata. The strata were upper-midlands (UM) 1 zero-grazing, UM 1 open-grazing, UM 2 zero-grazing, UM 4 zero-grazing and UM 4 open-grazing. In total, 225 calves on 188 smallholder dairy farms were visited within the first 2 weeks of life and thereafter at biweekly intervals up to the age of 6 months between March 1995 and August 1996. During each visit, the calves were weighed and other calf-management practices in the farm during the visit such as housing, feeding and tick control also were recorded. Other events such as morbidity and mortality between or during the visits were also recorded.The overall mean daily weight gains were 0.24–0.29 kg (S.D.=0.17–0.22 kg) and were lower than the recommended targets for smallholder farms of 0.40–0.50 kg. The major tendency in variability of daily weight gains was due to visit-to-visit variation (especially in calves >3 months old).Differences in mean daily gains were associated with AEZ-grazing strata and calf-level factors that included breed of calf, calf sickness, incidence of ECF, feeding of milk, concentrate feeds and minerals and interaction between calf age and AEZ-grazing strata (P<0.05). ECF and other calf sicknesses exerted a temporal effect on calf-growth at the height of illness and immediately after; calves later recovered the lost growth except where other factors such as poor calf nutrition prevailed. Improvement in calf-growth in Murang’a District is achievable and extension services should continue to target individual-calf-level management practices.     

Risk factors associated with the incidence rate of clinical mastitis in smallholder dairy cows in the Dar es Salaam region of Tanzania

Smallholder dairy herds around the Dar es Salaam region of Tanzania supply 86% of raw milk consumed by the city dwellers. Previous studies have indicated that clinical mastitis is an important disease affecting smallholder dairy cows and an 18-month questionnaire-based longitudinal field-study was conducted between July 2003 and March 2005 to elucidate risk factors associated with the incidence. A total of 6057 quarter-level observations from 317 lactating cows on 87 randomly selected smallholder dairy herds were analysed at the quarter and cow level using logistic and Poisson regression models, respectively. At the quarter level, the average incidence rate of clinical mastitis was 38.4 cases per 100 quarter-years at risk whereas at the cow level the incidence rate was 43.3 cases per 100 cow-years at risk. The incidence was significantly (P< or =0.001) associated with cow factors (body condition score, parity, stage of lactation, and udder consistency), housing (floor type) conditions and milking (cow and udder preparation) practices. It was concluded that the extrapolation of the classic ten-point mastitis control plan into smallholder dairy herds should be undertaken cautiously. An integrated approach to dairy extension should focus more on the creation of mastitis awareness among smallholder producers and on the improvement of animal nutrition and reproduction indices-factors that may also have a direct impact on milk yield.     

Suboptimal reproductive performance of dairy cattle kept in smallholder herds in a rural highland area of northern Tanzania

The objectives of the present study were to assess the reproductive performance and cumulative incidence risk of reproductive disorders and to compare the success of artificial insemination (AI) to natural service (by handmating; NS) in dairy cattle kept in smallholder herds under a zero-grazing system in a rural highland area of Tanzania. Data on occurrence of all normal and abnormal reproductive events were collected for 215 adult animals belonging to 74 households.

The median and range of the intervals: intercalving, calving to first service, and calving to pregnancy were 477 (335–860), 154 (38–486) and 206 (61–567) days, respectively. Breed and parity did not affect the reproductive parameters (P>0.05). However, cows in the milked group had a shorter median calving interval than those in the suckled group (P<0.001). The overall percentage pregnant and the percentage pregnant to first service were higher in the NS than in the AI group (49 vs. 32%; P=0.007) and (67 vs. 25%; P<0.001), respectively. The median numbers of services per pregnancy were not different between the AI (3) and NS (2) groups (P=0.17). The cumulative incidence risk of abortion, dystocia, prolapse, retained fetal membranes, mastitis, milk fever and cyclic non-breeders were 16.0, 1.7, 2.5, 4.2, 5.0, 1.7, and 6.1%, respectively. Hoof overgrowth (4.6%) and hoof deviation (4.6%) were the most-frequent digital problems. We concluded that reproductive parameters and cumulative incidence risk of abortion show suboptimal reproductive performance in rural-based, zero-grazed smallholder dairy herds in Tanzania particularly those using AI.     

A survey of decision making practices,educational experiences,and economic performance of two dairy farm populations in Central Thailand

A survey was performed to characterize the dairy production, educational experiences, decision making practices, and income and expenses of dairy farms and to determine any differences of these practices among two dairy farm populations. Farm groups were identified as farms from the Muaklek dairy cooperative (Muaklek farms) and farms from other dairy cooperatives (Non-Muaklek farms). In April, 2006 questionnaires were distributed to 500 dairy farms located in Lopburi, Nakhon Ratchisima, and Saraburi provinces. A total of 85 farms completed and returned questionnaires. Means and frequencies were calculated for questions across categories and Chi-square tests were performed to determine differences among Muaklek and Non-Muaklek farms. Results showed that most farms from both groups had a primary or high school educational level, used a combination confinement and pasture production system, gave a mineral supplement, raised their own replacement females, milked approximately 16 cows/day, used crossbred Holstein cows (75% Holstein or more), and mated purebred Holstein sires to their cows. More Non-Muaklek farms (P < 0.05; 80%) used a combination of genetic and phenotypic information when selecting sires than Muaklek farms (54%). Monthly profit per lactating cow, were 1,641 and 1,029 baht for Muaklek and Non-Muaklek farms, respectively. Overall, information from the study should be useful for dairy cooperatives and other dairy organizations when training farmers in the future and furthering dairy production research in Thailand.     

Evaluation of biological and economic efficiency of smallholder pig production systems in North Vietnam

This study evaluates smallholder pig production systems in North Vietnam, comparing a semi-intensive system near a town with good market access, where a Vietnamese improved breed has replaced the indigenous pig breed, and an extensive system away from town, where the indigenous breed still prevails. Fieldwork was conducted in 64 households in four villages. Repeated farm visits yielded 234 structured interviews. Data were analysed by linear models and non-parametric tests. Production inputs and outputs were quantified, and feed use efficiency and economic efficiency were assessed. The gross margin was higher for semi-intensive production with the improved breed, while the benefit–cost ratio was higher under extensive conditions with the indigenous breed. The net benefit did not differ between systems. Twenty-four per cent of farmers yielded a negative net benefit. In one village under extensive conditions, live weight output from indigenous sows with crossbred offspring compared positively with the output from semi-intensive production with improved genotypes, but was associated with high inputs, making production inefficient. Results indicate that improved genotypes might not be an efficient production alternative for saving-oriented production with limited resource supply. Suitability of evaluation parameters, farmers’ production aims, and factors impacting the production success in different systems are discussed.     

Longitudinal observation on reproductive and lactation performances of smallholder crossbred dairy cattle in Fitche,Oromia region,central Ethiopia

A two-year longitudinal study was conducted to assess the reproductive and lactation performances of smallholder crossbred dairy cattle in Fitche, central Ethiopia. Twenty-four smallholder dairy farms were monitored and data on reproductive, breeding, lactation and management aspects of crossbred dairy cows (n = 69) were collected and analysed. Moreover, milk samples were collected and analysed for progesterone. The overall Least-squares means for calving interval (CI), calving to conception interval (CCI) and first observed oestrus after calving were 516, 253 and 141 days, respectively. Suckling significantly prolonged these intervals. The mean first onset of luteal activity (OLA) after calving was 52 days, while 67.4% (n = 43) had a delayed (>55 days) return to cyclicity after calving. Suckling and parity number significantly (p < 0.05) influenced the OLA. The mean lactation length was 54.4 weeks. The overall daily mean milk yield for the first 43 weeks of lactation after calving was 11.7 L/day. The estimated daily milk yield increased slowly and reached peak (13.8 L/day) around the 11th week post partum and declined gradually and steadily. Suckling status, season of calving and parity number significantly influenced the estimated daily milk yield. In conclusion, the present study indicated that the smallholder crossbred dairy cows in the study area had prolonged intervals to first oestrus after calving, to conception and to the next calving, and thus their reproductive performance is unsatisfactory. Delayed first onset of luteal activity (postpartum anoestrus) contributed to these extended intervals. Further detailed investigation is suggested to examine the effects of other relevant factors on the reproductive and lactation performances of smallholder crossbred dairy cows for appropriate intervention.     

Risk factors for and reproductive outcomes of phantom cows on New Zealand dairy farms

AIMS: To determine some of the risk factors for cows not observed in oestrus within 35–42 days of an unsuccessful artificial insemination (AI; phantom cows), and the reproductive outcomes and effect of treatment of phantom cows.

MATERIALS AND METHODS: Over 2 years, in dairy herds from the Waikato (n=10) and Canterbury (n=4) regions of New Zealand, pregnancy diagnosis was carried out 35–42 days after AI on cows that had been inseminated in the first 3 weeks after the start of mating (PSM) but had not been seen returning to oestrus. Risk factors for phantom cows were analysed using a generalised linear mixed effect model.

In Year 1, all phantom cows were left untreated. In Year 2, phantom cows were categorised as having a corpus luteum (CL) (CL+ n=120), or having ovarian follicles ≥10 (n=101) or <10 (n=40)?mm in diameter. Cows with a CL were treated with cloprostenol or untreated and placed with bulls. Cows with no CL received intravaginal progesterone (P4) for 7 days, with injection of gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) on Days 0 and 9, and cloprostenol on Day 7 followed by AI. Pregnancy diagnosis of all cows took place 100–120 days after PSM and interval to conception and final pregnancy rate determined.

RESULTS: Overall, of cows inseminated in the first 3 weeks after PSM that did not return to oestrus, 610/6,734 (9.1%) were phantom cows. From the final multivariable analysis, treatment for anoestrus, BCS ≤4.0 at mating, being 2 or >6 years of age, and pure-bred, and decreasing interval between calving and mating, until 98 days post calving, were associated with increased odds of being a phantom cow. Compared to all other groups of cows, phantom cows had a longer interval to conception (p<0.001) and a lower final pregnancy rate (p<0.001).

Treatment of CL+ cows or cows with follicles ≥10?mm did not affect reproductive outcomes (p>0.3). For cows with follicles <10?mm treatment decreased the final percentage not pregnant (3/27; 11%; p=0.01) and interval to conception (21 days; p=0.02) compared with controls (7/13; 54% and 37 days, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Risk factors for phantom cows were identified that could be manipulated to reduce the number of phantom cows in a herd, in particular increasing BCS. Treatment of the majority of phantom cows did not improve reproductive performance.     

Storage quality and marketability potential of bagged silage for smallholder dairy farmers in Zimbabwe

Bagged sole maize and maize–cowpea silages in three bag sizes were assessed at 42 and 282 d post-ensiling for sensory and chemical quality. A survey of dairy farmers on silage use and preferences was conducted in the Chikwaka communal area and Marirangwe small-scale commercial farming area. Only silage dryness changed with time. Percentage neutral detergent fibre significantly changed in 20?kg bags from 58.1 ± 0.75% at 42 d to 52.3 ± 0.86% at 282 d and in 10?kg maize–cowpea bags from 48.6 ± 0.75% to 56.0 ± 0.86%. Percentage crude protein significantly decreased (P < 0.05) for 15?kg (11.8 ± 0.30% to 9.4 ± 0.35%) and 20?kg bags (11.4 ± 0.30% to 8.9 ± 0.35%) for maize– cowpea. All 45 farmers surveyed knew about silage and 90% were feeding it to cows, 53% were making their own and 37% purchased silage. Challenges in making silage included unavailability of forage choppers, lack of requisite resources and inadequate knowledge. Silage unavailability and difficulties in transportation and storage resulted in a low frequency of silage purchases. There was no association (χ2 0.18; P > 0.05) between farming system and farmers’ willingness to buy or sell silage, and larger bags were preferred (χ2 78.96; P < 0.05). Computed silage costs per tonne were farm-produced sole maize US$57.54, maize–cowpea US$58.59 and bought-in sole maize US$89.80.