Apoplast acidification is not a necessary determinant for the resistance of maize in the first phase of salt stress

In previous studies, a relation between plant growth during the first phase of salt stress and cell‐wall acidification was shown for differently resistant maize genotypes. In the present study, plants of the salt‐sensitive maize (Zea mays L.) cv. Pioneer 3906 and the salt‐resistant genotype SR 12, grown under 100 mM NaCl, showed a similar decrease in plasmalemma H⁺‐ATPase activity, while SR 12 showed less growth reduction than Pioneer 3906. From this it is concluded that maintenance of apoplast acidification is not necessary for better plant growth during the first phase of salt stress.     

Consequences of sodium exclusion for the osmotic potential in the rhizosphere – Comparison of two maize cultivars differing in Na+ uptake

According to the biphasic model of growth response to salinity, growth is first reduced by a decrease in the soil osmotic potential (Ψ_o), i.e., growth reduction is an effect of salt outside rather than inside the plant, and genotypes differing in salt resistance respond identically in this first phase. However, if genotypes differ in Na⁺ uptake as it has been described for the two maize cultivars Pioneer 3906 and Across 8023, this should result in differences in Na⁺ concentrations in the rhizosphere soil solution and thus in the concentration of salt outside the plant. It was the aim of the present investigation to test this hypothesis and to investigate the effect of such potential differences in soil Ψ_o caused by Na⁺ exclusion on plant water relations. Sodium exclusion at the root surface of intact plants growing in soil was investigated by sampling soil solution from the rhizosphere of two maize cultivars (Across 8023, Pioneer 3906). Plants were grown in a model system, consisting of a root compartment separated from the bulk soil compartment by a nylon net (30 μm mesh size), which enabled independent measurements of the change of soil solution composition and soil water content with increasing distance from the root surface (nylon net). Across 8023 accumulated higher amounts of sodium in the shoot compared to the excluder (Pioneer 3906). The lower Na⁺ uptake in the excluder was partly compensated by higher K⁺ uptake. Pioneer 3906 not only excluded sodium from the shoot but also restricted sodium uptake more efficiently from roots relative to Across 8023. This was reflected by higher Na⁺ concentrations in the rhizosphere soil solution of the excluder 34 days after planting (DAP). The difference in Na⁺ concentration in rhizosphere soil solution between cultivars was neither due to differences in transpiration and thus in mass flow, nor due to differences in actual soil water content. As the lower Na⁺ uptake of the excluder (Pioneer 3906) was only partly compensated by increased uptake of K⁺, soil Ψ_o in the rhizosphere of the excluder was more negative compared to Across 8023. However, no significant negative effect of decreased soil Ψ_o on plant water relations (transpiration rate, leaf Ψ_o, leaf water potential, leaf area) could be detected. This may be explained by the fact that significant differences in soil Ψ_o between the two cultivars occurred only towards the end of the experiment (27 DAP, 34 DAP).     

Decline in leaf growth under salt stress is due to an inhibition of H+‐pumping activity and increase in apoplastic pH of maize leaves

In this study, salt‐induced changes in the growth rate of maize (Zea mays L.) were investigated during the first phase of salt stress. Leaf growth was reduced in the presence of 100 mM NaCl, and effects were more pronounced for the salt‐sensitive cv. Pioneer 3906 in comparison to the hybrid SR03. While hydrolytic activity of plasma membrane remained unaffected, H⁺‐pumping activity was reduced by 47% in Pioneer 3906, but was unchanged in SR03. Changes in apoplastic pH were detected by ratiometric fluorescence microscopy using the fluorescent dye fluorescein isothiocyanate‐dextran (50 mM). Pioneer 3906 responded with an increase of 0.2 pH units in contrast to SR03 for which no apoplastic alkalization was found. With respect to the hypothesis that the apoplastic pH is influenced by salinity, it is suggested that salt resistance is partly achieved due to efficient H⁺‐ATPase proton pumping, which results in cell‐wall acidification and loosening.     

施氮对不同种植密度下夏玉米产量及子粒灌浆的影响

以夏玉米杂交种郑单958为材料,在不同种植密度(52500、67500、82500株/hm2)及不同供氮水平(0、120、240、360kg/hm2)下对玉米子粒产量、产量构成、植株地上部干物质积累、子粒灌浆动态及灌浆过程中的物质代谢状况进行了研究。结果表明,不同施氮水平及种植密度下子粒产量的差异主要是由穗粒数所决定。产量及穗粒数的形成与植株地上部干物质积累密切相关,施氮可明显促进植株地上部干物质积累量的增加。穗顶部与中下部子粒的灌浆动态及物质代谢具有明显的不同,授粉后5～20d,顶部子粒灌浆体积、干重、灌浆速率、总可溶性糖、蔗糖、淀粉含量均明显低于中下部子粒;同化物供应的差异是导致顶部与中下部子粒发育差异的一个重要原因。顶部子粒灌浆体积、干重、总糖、淀粉含量施氮处理高于不施氮处理;施氮可明显促进同化物的积累及向顶部子粒的供应,促进顶部子粒灌浆,减少败育,增加有效粒数,提高产量。     

Effects of nitrogen,phosphorus, and potassium nutrition on yield,rates of kernel growth and grain filling periods of two corn hybrids

Abstract

Depression of corn grain yields from nutrient stress has been studied extensively, but effects of nutrient stress on rates of corn development and yield determinants are less well understood. Nutritional effects on the number of kernels/unit area, growth rate/kernel, and duration of growth have implications concerning fertilization practices and yield potentials of crops. Two corn hybrids with equivalent silking dates but having different grain filling periods were grown in a field experiment. Fertility treatments consisted of a N series receiving 0, 112, or 336 kg of N/ha and a P‐K series receiving factorial combinations of 0, 22, or 112 kg of P/ha and 0, 56, or 224 kg of K/ha. Dates for grain initiation and maturity were determined for each plot along with tissue analyses of ear leaves, grain yields, and kernel weights. Concentrations of N and K in ear leaves generally corresponded to treatment levels of these nutrients, although Pioneer Hi‐bred 3390 appeared to be less efficient than Pioneer Hi‐bred 3334 in K uptake. Effects of nutrient stress on yield determinants depended on the determinant and nutrient under consideration. Severe N stress did not change length of grain filling periods, but decreased kernel numbers 30 to 70%. Stress for K, on the other hand, shortened grain filling periods about 13% and had only a slight effect on kernel number. Negligible P stress occurred in the experiment. The two hybrids produced equal quantities of grain/ha/day but the hybrid with a longer filling period (Pioneer 3334) filled many more kernels at a slightly slower rate and for a longer period of time to give a significantly greater grain yield compared to Pioneer 3390.     

Effects of Nitrogen Application on Chlorophyll Content,Water Relations,and Yield of Maize Hybrids under Saline Conditions

An experiment was conducted to assess whether accumulation of photosynthetic pigments, proline, and maintenance of water relation attributes relate to the yield of maize hybrids differing in salt tolerance. Two maize hybrids, Pioneer32B33 and Dekalb979, were grown at three salinity levels under four nitrogen treatments. The experiment was laid out in a three-factor randomized complete block design and there were three replications of each treatment. Salt stress significantly decreased leaf chlorophyll a and a/b contents, whereas chlorophyll b and total chlorophyll were slightly increased. Under salinity stress, relative water content decreased, and water potential and osmotic potential become more negative. As a result, turgor potential also decreased. Nitrogen application improved all the chlorophyll pigments, water-related attributes, and yield components. However, chlorophyll a/b ratio was decreased. Overall, because of the differential response of maize hybrids to salt stress in terms of their performance in photosynthetic pigments, water relations, and yield, it can be concluded that hybrid Pioneer32B33 might perform better, if grown under salinity regime and sufficient nitrogen was applied in the growth medium.     

EFFECT OF POTASSIUM NUTRITION ON SOLUTE ACCUMULATION,ION COMPOSITION AND YIELD OF MAIZE HYBRIDS GROWN UNDER SALINE CONDITIONS

An experiment was conducted to study the response of two maize hybrids to external potassium (K) application under saline conditions. The data showed that there was an increase in the organic solute contents and sodium ion under salinity stress, though potassium, calcium, nitrogen and phosphorus were decreased. There was a non-significant effect of K application on glycinebetaine and total soluble sugar, however; the proline, protein and total free amino acids were increased with the application of external K. The enzymatic activity like nitrate reductase and nitrite reductase activity were severely reduced under salinity stress and improved by K application. The maize hybrids differed significantly for all the parameters discussed in the study except sugar, phosphorus and number of grain rows per cob. The increase in yield parameters was more pronounced under control than under saline conditions. The enhanced yield and yield components of these maize hybrids might be due to the quick response to external K application, resulting in high contents of leaf potassium, calcium, nitrogen and phosphorus. The results indicated that the maize hybrid ‘Pioneer32B33’ might perform better than ‘Dekalb979’ under saline conditions when sufficient potassium is applied in the rooting medium.     

Enhancing maize grain yield under salt-affected field conditions using salt-resistant maize hybrids and higher planting density

Background

In arid and semiarid countries, grain yield of maize is increasingly impaired by soil salinity. Beside soil amelioration, the development of salt-resistant cultivars is a possibility to enhance crop yield on salt-affected soils.

Aims

This study aimed at testing yield performance in the field of salt-resistant maize hybrids on a salt-affected soil. In addition, planting density was optimized under the saline conditions.

Methods

Four salt-resistant maize hybrids (Zea mays L. SR-05, SR-12, SR-15, and SR-16) were grown under control (EC = 2.0–2.5 dS m⁻¹) and saline (EC = 10.0–12.0 dS m⁻¹) field conditions and compared to the salt-sensitive maize cv. Pioneer-3906. Planting density (5, 8, or 11 plants m⁻²) was optimized for saline soil conditions for SR-12 and the local hybrid EV-78.

Results

Yield of Pioneer-3906 was significantly reduced under salinity because of inhibited kernel setting, whereas the SR hybrids showed no decrease in grain yield. Based on grain yield, the optimum planting density was 8 plants m⁻² with no further increase with 11 plants m⁻². In contrast to SR-12, for cv. EV-78 no increase of harvest index with 8 relative to 5 plants m⁻² was observed.

Conclusions

Vegetative growth of Pioneer-3906 and the SR hybrids was decreased due to Phase-I effects but neither due to water deficiency nor ion toxicity. The experiment corroborated the salt resistance of the SR hybrids under field conditions. Under saline conditions, optimum planting density of salt-resistant cultivars may be higher than under nonsaline conditions when sufficient water supply by artificial irrigation is guaranteed.     

生育后期干旱对冬小麦产量和生理特性的影响

盆栽试验的结果表明:后期干旱明显降低冬小麦叶片光合速率和蒸腾速率,并导致保护酶活性下降,MDA累积,叶片衰老加速,硝酸还原酶活性下降,干物质生产受到显著影响。但中度干旱会提高籽粒中酸性转化酶、蔗糖合成酶、碱性转化酶的活性,有利于同化物向籽粒库转运分配;而严重干旱会降低籽粒的代谢活性,不利于同化物向籽粒库转运分配。后期中度干旱对穗粒数、千粒重无影响,对籽粒产量的影响较小,提高了收获指数和水分利用效率。严重干旱显著降低了株高、有效穗数、穗粒数和千粒重,显著降低了产量;同时收获指数和水分利用效率也降低。     

Influence of nitrogen application on dry biomass allocation and translocation in two maize varieties under short pre-anthesis and prolonged bracketing flowering periods of drought

Plants have evolved different mechanisms to survive under stress conditions. This field study was conducted to evaluate the influence of nitrogen (N) application on dry biomass allocation and translocation in two maize varieties under short pre-anthesis and prolonged bracketing flowering period of drought. Two maize varieties, ‘Pioneer 30B80? and ‘Suwan 4452? receiving N at 0 (control), 160 (optimal) and 320 (supra-optimal) kg ha^?1 were subjected to short pre-anthesis and prolonged bracketing flowering periods of drought. Prolonged bracketing flowering period of drought had more suppressive effect on anthesis-silking interval, dry matter allocation and translocation, leaf greenness, contribution of current assimilates to grain (CCAG), kernel number, kernel weight and kernel yield of two maize varieties than a short pre-anthesis drought. Nitrogen application at optimal level was the best for all traits, except CCAG. The maize variety ‘Pioneer 30B80? performed better under both drought types due to more root xylem vessels of large size and more accumulation of dry matter in leaves and roots than the variety ‘Suwan 4452?. Therefore, the variety ‘Pioneer 30B80? may be planted in drought prone environments and may be used in breeding program aimed at developing drought-tolerant cultivars.     

Influence of Drought Applied at Different Growth Stages on Kernel Yield and Quality in Maize (Zea Mays L.)

Drought severely affects yield and its quality in different plants. In a field experiment, maize was exposed to drought stress at vegetative, silking, and kernel-filling growth stages to determine the drought-induced changes in kernel yield and quality traits. The experiment was laid-out in a randomized complete block design with four replications. Withholding water at the vegetative stage was very effective in increasing protein, total amino acids, total soluble sugars, glucose, and sucrose contents in maize kernels. In contrast, drought applied at the kernel-filling stage increased the total free amino acids, total phenolics, and activities of catalase (CAT) and ascorbate peroxidase (APX) in maize kernels. Drought at the vegetative stage improved the kernel quality while at the silking stage severely affected kernel yield in maize. Taken together, the results suggested that incidence of drought should be avoided at the silking stage to minimize kernel yield losses and decrease in kernel quality in maize.     

The influence of high salt stress on starch,sucrose and degradative enzymes of two glycine max varieties that differ in salt tolerance

Salt stress effects were investigated on growth, the carbohydrate levels and the activity of degradative enzymes amylases, phosphorylase and invertase of two soybean varieties, Jackson and the more salt tolerant Lee.

Stress depressed growth of Jackson more than of Lee. Salt stress increased leaf and root sucrose more in Jackson than it did in Lee. Root sucrose was higher in Lee. Stress reduced leaf starch in both. It decreased spec. invertase activity in close negative correlation with the sucrose. Independent from salt tolerance, increased spec. amylase activity was in some correlation with the declined starch level. Stress changed phosphorylase little in both varieties. It is concluded that salt stress‐induced restricted utilization of leaf sucrose, but not foliar starch, could partly be a result of ionic affected degradation, which may diminish survival value of soybean varieties.     

Effect of Genotype and Growth Temperature on Sorghum Grain Physical Characteristics,Polyphenol Content,and Antioxidant Activity

This paper reports how genotype and growth temperature affect the physical characteristics and polyphenol content in sorghum grains. Two day/night temperature regimes, 32/21 and 38/21°C, were used to grow six sorghum genotypes (CCH1, CCH2, AQL33/QL36, Ai4, PI563516, and IS 8525). The physical characteristics (hardness, weight, and diameter) of sorghum grain and their free, bound, and total polyphenol contents were determined. Grain antioxidant activity was evaluated by 2,2′‐azinobis(3‐ethylbenzothiazoline‐6‐sulfonic acid) diammonium salt and 2‐2‐diphenyl‐1‐picrylhydrazyl assays. The results indicate that the weight and diameter of the sorghum kernels were significantly increased in all genotypes except for CCH1, under higher temperature, whereas kernel hardness decreased. Genotype had a significant influence polyphenol content (IS 8525 about four times higher than PI563516 under optimum temperature) and antioxidant activity, but temperature did not, with the exception of IS 8525 in which polyphenol content (reduced by about 10%) and antioxidant activity were lower at the high temperature. Polyphenol content was strongly positively correlated with antioxidant activity. This research provides valuable information on the properties of different sorghum genotypes under expected future increased temperatures that may be of value for varietal selection for specific end use.     

Influence of extreme K:Na ratios and high substrate salinity on plant metabolism of crops differing in salt tolerance

The relation between activity of soluble acid invertase and sucrose content in leaves of young bushbeans (salt sensitive) and sugarbeets (salt tolerant) and ion‐specific effects of salinity environment were investigated. For comparison the response of isolated invertase from both plant species to ion combination and ion concentration was investigated. The plants were grown in water culture under controlled conditions.

In busbean leaves invertase activity decreased while sucrose increased. K⁺ with Cl^‐ as counterion was most effective “in vivo”;. However, there was little change in invertase activity or sucrose content in sugarbeet leaves. Independent of the origin of the enzyme, invertase activity was not affected by either ion concentration or ion combination “in vitro”;. Acid invertase might be a key enzyme in the utilization of carbohydrates. The ionic effect on acid invertase activity and carbohydrate content in intact plant tissue could be a possible indicator of salt tolerance of crops.     

Differences in Physiological Traits Among Salt‐Stressed Barley Genotypes

Abstract

The effect of salinity on some physiological parameters in 16 barley genotypes with different salt tolerance was investigated. The results showed 50 mM NaCl treatment increased Na⁺/K⁺ ratio, malondialdehyde (MDA) and proline contents, and decreased cell membrane stability index (CMSI) and fresh shoot biomass (FSB) of all tested genotypes. Salt stress also resulted in a decreased chlorophyll (Chl) content and net photosynthesis (Pn) for most genotypes. Under higher salt stress (300 mM NaCl), the marked increase for Na⁺/K⁺, MDA, and proline content, and decrease for other parameters were found for all genotypes. The affected extent of these parameters by salt stress varied with genotypes. Proline accumulation in barley was associated with injured extent under salt stress, indicating it is not a defensive reaction to the stress. K⁺ uptake was less affected, whereas Na⁺ accumulation in plants was enhanced under high salt stress. The correlation analysis showed that MDA and proline content, Na⁺ concentration and Na⁺/K⁺ were negatively correlated with FSB, whereas other parameters examined in the study were positively correlated with FSB.     

结实期弱光胁迫对甜玉米籽粒灌浆和叶片衰老的影响

为探索甜玉米生长发育对花后弱光的响应,以京科甜183和京科甜533为材料,结实期(人工授粉至鲜食期)利用遮阳网进行50%遮光处理,研究结实期弱光胁迫对甜玉米籽粒灌浆和叶片衰老的影响。结果表明,春播和夏播处理下,弱光胁迫均使甜玉米穗粒数减少,鲜籽粒重降低,进而导致产量损失;随灌浆进程推进,鲜籽粒体积、鲜重、干重和叶片丙二醛(MDA)含量逐渐升高,籽粒含水率、叶片可溶性蛋白含量和SPAD值逐渐下降。结实期弱光胁迫显著降低鲜籽粒体积、鲜重和干重,花后27 d时籽粒含水率较低,叶片可溶性蛋白质含量和SPAD值降低,MDA含量增加,过氧化氢酶、超氧化物歧化酶和过氧化物酶活性提高。总体上,弱光胁迫能加快甜玉米叶片衰老,进而限制籽粒灌浆,导致籽粒重量下降。本研究结果为甜玉米结实期叶片衰老和籽粒灌浆在低光照条件下的调控提供了理论参考。     

Heat Stress at Different Grain Filling Stages Affects Fresh Waxy Maize Grain Yield and Quality

The effects of heat stress (mean day/night temperatures were 29/18 and 35/18°C for control and heat stress treatments, respectively) at 1–10 or 11–20 days after pollination (DAP) on grain yield and quality of two waxy maize varieties, Suyunuo5 and Yunuo7, were studied. The decrease in grain number and fresh grain yield was more severe when heat stress was introduced early. The responses of grain weight and its components to heat stress were dependent on the variety and heat stress stage. Heat stress increased the starch granule size and volume percentage of diameter larger than 17 μm in both varieties. Crystallinity, iodine binding capacity, and pasting and gelatinization temperatures were increased in both varieties under heat stress at 11–20 DAP; however, the response to early‐stage heat stress was variety dependent. Peak viscosity and retrogradation percentage were increased by heat stress at either stage. These results suggest that heat stress decreases fresh grain yield and accelerates grain filling rate; it increases starch content, starch granule size, crystallinity, and iodine binding capacity as well as decreases the protein content in Yunuo7, thus making the grain less tender and prone to retrogradation. Warm conditions should shorten the time to harvest in fresh waxy maize production.     

Effect of partial defoliation after silking stage on yield components of three grain maize hybrids under semi-arid conditions

The effect of source reduction on yield and yield components of three maize hybrids at three plant densities was studied under agro-climatic conditions in southern Iran. Field experiments were conducted at the research farm of the College of Agriculture, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran, located at Bajgah (52° 35′ N and 39° 4′ E, 1810 masl) during the 2008 and 2009 growing seasons. The treatments included three hybrids, three plant densities and defoliation, arranged in the main, subplots and sub-subplots, respectively. Defoliation treatments, which consisted of removing all the leaves from one side of the maize plants, were imposed when plants were at the silking stage. Silking was taken as the time when 50% of the plants in a row presented visible silks. Partial defoliations included control, and 50% defoliation at 25 and 35 days after silking (defoliation treatments were applied to all plants in each plot). The experiments were conducted in a randomized complete block (RCB) design with three replications. Dry matter accumulation was assessed by sampling ears at 7-day intervals from the mid-silking stage to black layer formation. Defoliation treatments decreased grain yields significantly in both years. The highest grain yield in 2008 (19 t ha^?1) was obtained from hybrid Maxima ‘524’ and in 2009 (14 t ha^?1) from hybrid 704 at 95,000 plants ha^?1 density. Defoliation treatments decreased grain yields due to a reduction in the number of kernels per ear, as well as mean kernel weight. Some other measured parameters including stalk, shank, husk and cob dry weights, and cob and ear lengths were also decreased under defoliation treatments. If 50% of the photosynthetic area after silking was removed, the quantity of retransferred assimilates from stalk to kernel was increased. Finally, partial defoliation, 25 days after silking, reduced all the yield components more than any other treatments.     

钙离子对两种基因型冬小麦萌发过程中盐胁迫效应的影响

以两种不同基因型冬小麦种子为试验材料,研究了外源Ca(NO3)2和CaC l2对小麦萌发过程中盐害的缓解作用。结果表明,150mmol L-1NaC l胁迫明显抑制小麦种子的萌发。盐胁迫主要影响小麦根和芽的伸长,对根数的影响较小。种子萌发过程中,小偃6号的耐盐性优于陕229。外源钙对两种小麦盐胁迫效应的缓解作用不同。6mmol L-1钙离子可明显减轻陕229的盐害作用,对小偃6号作用不大。盐胁迫对种子萌发过程中的蛋白酶和淀粉酶活性具有明显的抑制作用。盐胁迫下,小偃6号种子的蛋白酶和淀粉酶活性明显高于陕229。钙离子对盐胁迫下小麦萌发过程胚乳内蛋白酶的活性影响较大,对淀粉酶活性影响较小。     

盐胁迫下两种基因型冬小麦萌发过程中钠离子吸收及对碳、氮代谢的影响

采用两种基因型冬小麦种子为试验材料,研究了盐胁迫对小麦种子萌发过程中Na 的吸收和累积及其对C、N代谢的影响及外源Ca(NO3)2和CaCl2对小麦萌发过程中盐害的缓解效应。结果表明,150mmol/L NaCl胁迫明显抑制小麦种子的萌发。种子萌发过程中,"小偃6号"的耐盐性优于"陕229"。外源钙对两种小麦盐胁迫效应的缓解作用不同。6mmol/L钙离子可明显减轻"陕229"的盐害作用,对"小偃6号"作用不大。盐胁迫对种子萌发过程中的蛋白酶和淀粉酶活性具有明显抑制作用。盐胁迫下,"小偃6号"种子的蛋白酶和淀粉酶活性明显高于"陕229"。钙离子对盐胁迫下小麦萌发过程胚乳内蛋白酶的活性有较大调节作用,对淀粉酶活性影响较小。盐胁迫下小麦种子中Na 含量显著增加,K/Na比显著降低。钙离子对盐胁迫下小麦种子中Na 累积的影响较大,盐胁迫和外源钙处理对K 含量影响较小。