Interspecific differences in dead plant buffering capacity alter the impact of acid rain on decomposition rates in tidal marshes

Simulated acid rain did not alter respiration rates of microbial associations on dead Spartina alterniora from Delaware salt marshes or on dead Carex lyngbyei from Oregon brackish marshes. Since these dead plant-microbe associations have a strong buffering capacity for acid rain, the microbial associations did not experience a low pH. In contrast, Phragmites australis has a low buffering capacity and microbial respiration was reduced at least 25 % by acid rain. When dead plant-microbe associations from freshwater marshes and various terrestrial plant populations were immersed in simulated acid rain, the rain water equilibrated at pH's from 3.9 to 5.0 and were characteristic of the various species. The different buffering capacities of such dead plant-microbe associations may explain the inconsistent results published from decomposition studies and may serve as a quick and easy method of assessing the probable impact of acidic deposition on decomposition processes.     

Effects of acids on forest trees as measured by titration in vitro,inheritance of buffering capacity in Picea abies

The effect of acid precipitation on vegetation is the result of an interaction between acid and plant. The metabolism of plants is dependent on optimal pH-values, which are maintained by regulation. There are differences in the effectiveness of regulation under such exogenous influences as acidic precipitation. These differences can be related to the resistance of plants to acidic precipitation. Such differences were measured as buffering capacity of homogenized leaves during titration with acid. There are significant differences in buffering capacity between clones in Pinus spp. and Picea abies. A highly significant variance in buffering capacity also was found among families of P. abies. Calculations of genetical parameters show that the phenotypical variance of buffering capacity is governed mainly by genetical factors.     

Investigation of Alkaline Nature of Rain Water in India

Increased industrialization and urbanization lead to the atmospheric acidity which causes acid rain. However, in India, the nature of rain water has been observed to be alkaline. The reason for alkaline nature of rain water is found to be the buffering of acidity by soil-derived aerosols which are rich in Ca. Over the Indian Ocean where concentrations of soil dust are negligible, the acid rain has been observed to be a common phenomenon during INDOEX campaigns. In the Indian subcontinent, observations have indicated that rain becomes acidic when the buffering potential of rain water is weak. The weak buffering potential may be due to less interference of soil dust, acidic nature of soil or very high influence of industrial source.     

Micromorphological and anatomical alterations caused by simulated acid rain in Restinga plants: Eugenia uniflora and Clusia hilariana

Eugenia uniflora and Clusia hilariana seedlings were submitted to simulated acid rain, pH 3, for 40 days. The degree of visible injury and the anatomical and micromorphological alterations were determined 24 hours after the last simulation. E. uniflora presented a higher degree of leaf necrosis. The adaxial epidermis and part of the palisade parenchyma of the entire leaf blade were affected and hypertrophy, hyperplasia and cicatrization tissue differentiation occurred. Erosion and morphological modification of the epicuticular wax and alterations in the epidermis were detected on the upper and lower leaf surfaces. Stomata with deformed ostioles and rupture of the stomatal ledge were observed. C. hilariana presented necrosis in leaf margin and in abaxial leaf surface, showing collapsed cells or with plasmolized aspect, cicatrization tissue, epicuticular wax alterations, occasional leaf perforations, irregular arrangement of adaxial epidermis cells and twisted subsidiary cells. The structural alterations indicated a greater susceptibility of E. uniflora to acid rain. he lower sensibility of C. hilariana can be related with the anatomical characteristics as: thick cuticle with evident cuticular flanges, three layers of hypodermis and mesophyll more thick and compact.     

Geometrical features and wettability of dung beetles and potential biomimetic engineering applications in tillage implements

Dung beetles can break up dung pads and compact dung into balls and their cuticle surfaces do not stick dung or soil. The geometrical features of some dung beetles and wetting behavior of the pronotum cuticle surfaces of the dung beetle Copris ochus Motschulsky were investigated. It was found that dung beetles have embossed textured surfaces on their pronotum, clypeus and elytra. The head of dung beetles have shapes similar as bulldozing blades. The forelegs of dung beetles have a tooth-like structure with strong burrowing ability. The number and/or the size of the teeth of the forelegs are dependent upon the species of dung beetles. The pronotum surface profiles of the tested dung beetle C. ochus Motschulsky displayed approximately a statistical fractal character and the estimated fractal dimension of the pronotum surface profile was 1.877. The wetting tests showed that the apparent contact angles of water on the pronotum surface of the dung beetle C. ochus Motschulsky were 91–106.5° and the average contact angle was 97.2°, representing a hydrophobic property. Some potential engineering applications of the geometrical features of dung beetles and the wetting behavior of their cuticle surfaces in biomimetic designs of tillage implements were discussed.     

Fungal Generation of Organic Acids for Removal of Lead from Contaminated Soil

The use of solid-state fermentation (SFF) of low cost substrates by fungal species to generate organic acid solutions for washing of lead from a contaminated soil was evaluated in this study. SFF filtrates were generated by fermentation of four substrates (corn cobs, apple pomace, rice and hay) with three fungal species (Aspergillus niger NRRL 2001 (A. niger 1), Aspergillus niger ATCC 64065 (A. niger 2), Aspergillus foetidus NRRL 337) at three fermentation times. The concentration and speciation of organic acids of the filtrates was found to be a function of the substrate type, the fungal species and the fermentation time. Fermentation of rice resulted in the highest concentrations of citric acid while fermentation of corn cobs, apple pomace and hay tended to generate oxalic acid with an increasing fraction of this acid as the fermentation progressed. Batch extraction tests that employed the SSF filtrates revealed that soluble lead concentrations as high as 35 mg/l could be achieved. Filtrates containing elevated concentrations of citric acid resulted in the greatest lead extraction while oxalic acid inhibited solubilization. Due to the buffering of pH that was provided by the soil in the batch tests this factor did not appear to influence lead extraction. Lead extraction was observed over an extended period of time in a column test. Lead extraction was strongly influenced by the pH of the soil column and less strongly influenced by the organic acid content of the SSF filtrate. The speciation of organic acids was substantially modified from primarily citric acid in the SSF filtrate to gluconic acid in the soil column discharge.     

Response of two western Canadian conifers to simulated acidic precipitation

Ready-to-plant nursery stock of jack pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.) and white spruce (Picea glauca (Moench) Voss) were subjected to simulated acid rains of pH 5.6 (control), 4.6, 3.6, and 2.6 under controlled growth room conditions to determine the threshold for damage. The two species exhibited contrasting response patterns to simulated acid rain treatments. Growth and chlorophyll content of jack pine were not adversely affected at any of the levels applied. Furthermore, no macroscopic foliar injury symptoms were evident and foliar nutrient levels remained unaffected. White spruce showed no statistically significant reduction in growth rate at any of the treatments. Needle chlorophyll a content of white spruce was not affected by any of the treatments, while chlorophyll b level was significantly reduced at pH 2.6. Symptoms of visible injury were observed to increase with rain acidity. No statistically significant change in the levels of foliar nutrients of white spruce were found, with the exception of the elevated S concentration at pH 2.6.     

A two-year experience on 15N-urea fertilization of a corn field amended with fly ash

Soybean seedlings (Glycine max) were exposed to simulated acid rain containing sulfate ion only or a mixture of sulfate, nitrate and chloride anions, using a continuous rain generating system in a side opened glasshouse. Plants were subjected to acid rain treatment twice a week, for a 1 or 3 hr period at a rate of 2.2 or 5.0 mm hr^?1, respectively. Dry seed yield in plants treated with simulated acid rain at pH 2.0, in the three of 4 experiments conducted over a 3 yr period, was significantly less than that at pH 3.0 or higher. Simulated acid rain treatment at pH 3.0 or higher did not significantly affect yield compared to pH 5.6; however, plants exposed to simulated acid rain at pH 4.0 tended to yield more than those treated with pH 5.6 rain. Based on the current 3 years of research in which results from 4 experiments were combined, rain acidity at current levels in Japan would not directly affect seed production of selected cultivars of soybean.     

Effect of simulated acid rain on mycorrhizal infection of Pinus strobus L.

Mycorrhizal infection but not growth of white pine seedlings was reduced by application of simulated rain at pH 3.5 at 3 times ambient rates to plants grown in steamed Mardin soil inoculated with Pisolithus tinctorius. In unsteamed Mardin soil, the simulated acid rain at 3 times ambient rates had no effect on mycorrhizal infection or growth of pine seedlings if the rain was applied to the plants and soil or to only the soil before planting, except that nitrate-containing acid rain increased growth, infection and N content. In limed Mardin soil, the simulated acid rain reduced mycorrhizal infection if applied to the plants and soil as the seedlings were growing but not if applied to the soil before planting. Application of pH 3.5 rain at ambient rates had no detectable influence on mycorrhizal infection in 6 of 9 soils tested, but it stimulated infestion in 3 soils if the simulated rain contained only sulfate and in 1 soil if it had both sulfate and nitrate.     

Effects of acid precipitation on embryonic mortality of Ambystoma salamanders in the Connecticut Valley of Massachusetts

The phenomenon of increased embryonic mortality of the spotted salamander Ambystoma maculatum concomitant with breeding pond acidification from acid rainfall was investigated in the Connecticut Valley of Massachusetts. The pH and chemistry of rain and pond water were analysed, and embryonic mortality of spotted and Jefferson salamanders A. jeffersonianum was monitored in 1976 and 1977.Rainfall pH, 4·16 and 4·07 in 1976 and 1977, respectively, indicates that acid rain continues to occur in the area. Ambystoma breeding ponds are acidic, due to background and rainfall acidity. The average pH of six ponds dropped from 5·62 in 1976 to 5·10 in 1977. Pond pH decreased up to 0·75 pH units following heavy rainfall. These trends indicate that pond acidification from acid rain is occurring.Despite pond acidity, embryonic mortality of spotted and Jefferson salamanders was low. For spotted salamanders, mortality ranged from 2·1 to 30·2%, with 15 of 17 ponds below 16%. Embryonic mortality of Jefferson salamanders ranged from 12·4 to 40·3%. No significant correlation between pond pH and percent embryonic mortality was found.Estimates based on numbers of breeding females showed Connecticut Valley spotted salamander populations to be larger than in areas where their decline has been correlated with acid rain. The size of present populations, and the embryonic acid tolerance exhibited by spotted and Jefferson salamanders, indicate that acid rain has not affected their populations in the Connecticut Valley of Massachusetts.     

Response of Ammophila breviligulata to acid rain and low soil pH

The effects of simulated acid rain and low soil pH on the growth of Ammophila breviligulata (Cape Strain), American beach grass, were studied in greenhouse experiments. Plants treated with acid rain were shorter, but shoot density, live shoot biomass, and rhizome biomass were not adversely affected by the acid rain treatments. Root biomass was greatest in the acid rain treatments. A manipulated soil pH of 4.0, typical of that found in field sites of dying beach grass, resulted in significantly reduced plant height, shoot density, shoot biomass, and rhizome biomass. Root biomass was greater in the low pH treatment and was six times greater than rhizome biomass in that treatment while the root to rhizome ratio was approximately 1∶1 in the control — likely a reflection of the plant's response to decreased nutrient availability in the low pH soil. Acid rain treatment of dune sand resulted in the leaching of Al, a potentially phytotoxic element.     

苏州市酸雨特征及其与大气环境的关系分析

为了解苏州市酸雨现状及其与大气环境的关系,应用统计分析、相关分析和数值模拟等方法对352个酸雨观测样本进行分析研究。结果表明:352个酸雨观测样本中,平均pH值4.5;pH值>5.6的非酸雨所占比例仅8%,其余92%为酸雨,pH值<4.5的强酸雨出现频率高达67%;pH年均值变化不大,存在一定的月际差异;电导率K值在11.9～284μS.cm-1间剧烈变动,表明大气降水中离子总量差别很大;不同降雨强度时,pH值、K值存在明显差别:大雨和暴雨逢雨必酸,小雨和中雨少数样本pH值>5.6,为非酸雨;K值随雨量增大而减小,说明小雨滴对大气环境中污染物的吸附作用更明显;pH值与大气污染物SO2、NO2、PM10、PM2.5质量浓度负相关;选取了2010年3月一次酸雨过程应用数值模拟方法模拟北方沙尘水平和垂直传输路径,印证了大气中污染物质可以远距离传播,沙尘中离子成分含量高,可导致降雨K值增大,酸度降低。     

Effects of acidic precipitation,fertilization and liming on the ground vegetation in coniferous forests of southern Germany

Repeated vegetation surveys in non-fertilized Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) stands with virtually constant light regimes show an increase in species number over the last 2 to 4 decades. More nitrophilic, but acid-tolerant species (e.g. Deschampsia flexuosa) have expanded mainly on loamy soils. Positive changes have also been observed with bryophytes, being indicators of better humus forms (e.g. Polytrichum attenuatum). An average decrease of cover or constancy was detected for two dwarf shrubs (Calluna vulgaris, Vaccinium vitis-idaea) and some epigeic lichens. The vegetation changes were compared with N fertilizer effects. Recovery processes after abandonment of litter removal (or grazing) and increased N-deposition are taken to be the main reasons for this change. The effects of simulated H₂SO₄ rain and liming on ground vegetation of an N-“saturated” Norway spruce (Picea abies) stand have been analyzed since the summer of 1983. The herb species Oxalis acetosella on the control plots showed very limited growth, which was removed by liming. Simulated H₂SO₄ rain (pH 2.7 to 2.8) further impaired the Ca-nutrition and growth of Oxalis and lethally damaged dominant moss species (e.g. Thuidium tamariscinum). Only a few acid-tolerant bryophytes e. g. Lophocolea heterophylla, Hypnum cupressiforme) utilized the vacated niches and increased their frequency. Liming was able to moderate or delay the acid rain effects and resulted in a slow colonization by vascular species, which are indicators of higher pH-values and increased nitrification.     

30种草本观赏植物对模拟酸雨的反应

采用叶面喷洒模拟酸雨方法,研究了30种草本观赏植物对酸雨急性伤害的反应。试验结果表明,随酸雨胁迫强度增强,多数草本观赏植物叶片伤斑面积加大。当酸雨pH达2．0时,所有植物叶片均出现伤斑,其中近半数种类叶片伤斑面积>20％。30种草本观赏植物中敏感植物3种,占10．0％;抗性植物17种,占56．67％;中等抗性植物10种,占33．33％。在设定的酸雨胁迫强度(pH 2．0～3．5)下,多数植物的伤害阈值可被确定,惟有羽衣甘蓝、三色堇和葱兰在pH 2．0酸雨胁迫下仍无法确定其伤害阈值,表明此3种草本观赏植物对酸雨有极强抗性。试验表明30种受试草本观赏植物抗酸雨能力强弱与叶片细胞pH变化有关,即叶片细胞pH缓冲能力影响了酸雨对叶片的表观伤害效应。     

Application of the critical loads approach in South Africa

South Africa is the most industrialised country in southern Africa and stands at some risk from negative pollution impacts. To the authors' knowledge, this paper presents the first attempt to apply the critical loads approach on the African continent; although sensitivity mapping has been performed for Africa and the rest of the world (Kuylerstierna et al, this conference). Actual sulphate and base cation deposition loads in Mpumalanga (formerly the Eastern Transvaal province of South Africa) were mapped from 16 monitoring sites. The region is characterised by long, dry periods with little rain, high evaporation (up to 8 mm per day) and low run-off (15% of MAP). Provisional critical load and exceedance maps were produced for the surface waters using the Steady-State Water Chemistry Model and the Diatom model. Maps of soil sensitivity to acid deposition, based on bedrock lithology, soil chemical characteristics and land cover, were produced. A weathering rate of 0.39–0.86 keq/ha/year was calculated for the most sensitive sites and taken as the critical load, based on the assumption that the weathering rate represents the buffering ability of the system. The critical loads were contrasted with measures of actual deposition to examine potential scenario's for critical load exceedances. Akey factor in refining the sensitivity maps, and allowing estimation of the critical loads, is the accurate calculation of weathering rates under the warmer and more arid environmental conditions prevalent in South Africa. In a developing country such as South Africa, where research resources are limited, the critical loads approach is a valuable means of assessing the risk of potential impacts of atmospheric deposition.     

Effects of acidity in precipitation on terrestrial vegetation

Over the last several decades rain in the Northeastern United States has become more acidic presumably as a result of anthropogenic inputs of SO_x and NO_x to the atmosphere and their conversion to H₂SO₄ and HNO₃. Present experimental results suggest that acidic precipitation would initially affect organisms on leaf surfaces and epidermal cells of leaves of higher plants. More internal cell layers would be affected with increasing duration or frequency of exposure. Differences in responses of plant foliage among plant species to acidic precipitation appear to be due to the degree of leaf wetting and differences in responses of leaf cells to low pH rain. Moreover, within the same plant, particular structures or cell types may be more sensitive than others. If the United States is to utilize coal reserves for electric power generation that might increase rainfall acidity in the future, an assessment of the impact that acidic rain might have on terrestrial vegetation is necessary. In one experiment, field-grown soybeans were exposed to short duration rainfalls of either pH 4.0, 3.1, 2.7, or 2.3 to provide inputs of 50, 397, 998, or 2506 μeq of H⁺, respectively, above ambient levels throughout the growing season. Control plots received only ambient rainfalls. These additional H⁺ decreased seed yield, 2.6, 6.5, 11.4, and 9.5%, respectively. A treatment response function determined between H⁺ treatments and seed yield wasy=21.06?1.01 logx had a correlation coefficient of ?0.90. Researchers must design additional experiments with adequate experimental controls to assess the impact that acidic rain, at the present pH levels of 3.0 to 4.0 or at anticipated worst-case levels, that could occur if the acidity of rain should increase. Only a holistic view of the impacts that acid precipitation may have on vegetation will enable optimal energy and environmental policy decisions to be made.     

MODELLING LEACHING OF INORGANIC Hg(II) IN A SCANDINAVIAN IRON-HUMUS PODZOL - VALIDATION AND LONG-TERM LEACHING UNDER VARIOUS DEPOSITION RATES

Increasing mercury contents are reported from freshwater systems and fish in northern Europe and North America. Mercury input from soils is a major source with the leaching being affected by increased atmospheric mercury deposition compared to pre-industrial times and by other environmental conditions such as acid rain. The results of a mathematical model-calculation of vertical inorganic Hg(II) leaching in a Scandinavian iron-humus podzol under different atmospheric input rates of mercury are presented. Leaching under background rain conditions was calculated to be considerably stronger than under acid rain conditions. Increasing fractions of deposited soluble or solute atmospheric mercury were leached from the O _f(h)-horizon with decreasing soil content of soluble mercury under acid rain conditions; this effect was less pronounced under background rain conditions. The steady state concentrations of soluble mercury of the upper soil horizons were calculated and compared with the actual concentrations of total (= soluble + insoluble mercury) and extractable (= estimate of soluble) mercury measured in these horizons. The results indicate that even if the deposition of airborne mercury to soil is strongly reduced, the total mercury content of the soil decreases only slowly. It may take decades or even centuries before a new steady state concentration of total mercury is established in the soil. The decrease of the mercury concentration in the O _f(h)-horizon is probably largely dependent on the turnover of organic matter, binding most of the deposited airborne mercury in an insoluble form. Hence, present day mercury leaching is likely to be dominated by mercury deposited during former times and temporarily retained in an insoluble form in the organic matter.     

pH buffering capacity of acid soils from tropical and subtropical regions of China as influenced by incorporation of crop straw biochars

Purpose

The key factors influencing pH buffering capacity of acid soils from tropical and subtropical regions, and effects of soil evolution and incorporation of biochars on pH buffering capacity were investigated to develop suitable methods to increase pH buffering capacity of acid soils.

Materials and methods

A total of 24 acid soils collected from southern China were used. The pH buffering capacity was determined using acid–base titration. The values of pH buffering capacity were obtained from the slope of titration curves of acid or alkali additions plotted against pH in the pH range 4.0–7.0. Two biochars were prepared from straws of peanut and canola using a low temperature pyrolysis method. After incubation of three acid soils, pH buffering capacity was then determined.

Results and discussion

pH buffering capacity had a range of 9.1–32.1 mmol kg^–1 pH^–1 for 18 acid soils from tropical and subtropical regions of China. The pH buffering capacity was highly correlated (R ²?=?0.707) with soil cation exchange capacity (CEC) measured with ammonium acetate method at pH 7.0 and decreased with soil evolution due to the decreased CEC. Incorporation of biochars at rates equivalent to 72 and 120 t ha^?1 increased soil pH buffering capacity due to the CEC contained in the biochars. Incorporation of peanut straw char which itself contained more CEC and alkalinity induced more increase in soil CEC, and thus greater increase in pH buffering capacity compared with canola straw char. At 5% of peanut straw char added, soil CEC increased by 80.2%, 51.3%, and 82.8% for Ultisol from Liuzhou, Oxisol from Chengmai and Ultisol from Kunlun, respectively, and by 19.8%, 19.6%, and 32.8% with 5% of canola straw char added, respectively; and correspondingly for these soils, the pH buffering capacity increased by 73.6%, 92.0%, and 123.2% with peanut straw char added; and by 31.3%, 25.6%, and 52.3% with canola straw char added, respectively. Protonation/deprotonation of oxygen-containing functional groups of biochars was the main mechanism for the increase of pH buffering capacity of acid soils with the incorporation of biochars.

Conclusions

CEC was a key factor determining pH buffering capacity of acid soils from tropical and subtropical regions of China. Decreased CEC and content of 2:1-type clay minerals during evolution of tropical soils led to decreased pH buffering capacity. Incorporation of biochars generated from crop straws did not only ameliorate soil acidity, but also increased soil pH buffering capacity.

     

Effect of simulated acid rain on the growth of soybean

Soybean seedlings (Glycine max) grown in a glasshouse were exposed to simulated acid rain using a solution of deionized water containing sulfate, nitrate and chloride in concentrations and proportions equivalent to those in ambient rain water. Plants were subjected to acid rain treatment twice a week during the growing season, for a 1 hr period at a rate of 5 mm hr^?1. When the acid rain was below pH 3.0, visible symptoms developed in the young trifoliate leaves. However, at a pH above 3.0 there was no evidence of visible leaf injury; also tissue dry weights and leaf areas were not affected even after 7 weeks of exposure. The number of root nodules in plants exposed to acid rain at pH 4.0 tended to be higher than those of control plants maintained at pH 5.6, but decreased subsequently with decreasing pH. Based on our results current ambient levels of rain acidity in Japan should not have an adverse impact on seedling growth in soybean.     

Acid-base buffer characteristics of soils of spruce rhizosphere in the AE-horizon of podzolic soil

In samples taken from the AE-horizon of podzolic soil in the rhizosphere of spruce and the area external to it, the general chemical parameters and buffering to acid and base were determined by continuous potentiometric titration. It was found that the rhizosphere soil is characterized by significantly (at P = 0.9) higher general buffering to the base as compared than is that outside the rhizosphere zone due to increased pH values in the range of 9 to 10. This is explained by the large amount of organic matter, and probably mobile compounds of iron and aluminum, in it. During titration by the base, it is assumed that the main buffer reactions in this pH range are deprotonation of phenol hydroxides of specific and nonspecific organic acids, as well as of surface hydroxyl groups of minerals of iron hydroxides, and increase in the basicity of Fe- and Alorganic complexes.