延庆县人工植被的防风蚀效应研究

就延庆县两种类型人工植被在春季对风沙阻滞规律进行分析研究,通过野外调查与实验观测,研究结果表明农田防护林带风速在林带后7H处降低最大,防风效能最大,杨树片林风速在9H处最小,防风效能最大;杨树片林的粗糙度最大,农田防护林的粗糙度较小,片林的粗糙度比林内道路提高了1.65倍,比裸地提高了4.81倍;农田防护林带阻沙作用主要在林带背风面,占总阻沙量的82.3%,而杨树片林的阻沙作用主要在林内,占总阻沙量的87.1%。平均阻沙量片林〉林带防护林。     

康庄地区人工植被防风阻沙与土壤改良效益分析

通过对延庆县康庄地区3种人工植被（林带、片林、杏园）不同部位的风速、积沙量、积沙形态特征以及林地土壤养分的观测与分析,比较了不同植被类型防风、阻沙效益及土壤改良效益的差异;研究结果表明：在迎风面1H～10H范围内片林的防风效能最大为25.6%;在林内距迎风面1H～7H范围内杏园防风效能最大为70.0%;在背风面1H～20H范围内防护林带防风效能最大为32.3%。其阻沙量从小到大序列为：林带、片林、杏园;在植被的作用下其积沙形态呈现不同的分布规律。三种植被的土壤改良效果明显,杏园改良效益最佳。     

河北省坝上地区牧场防护林的防风效能研究

[目的]揭示河北省坝上地区御道口牧场防护林林带的防风效能,为牧场防护林建设提供理论依据。[方法]以樟子松防护林林带为研究对象,运用空间多点观测法观测。[结果]当旷野风速为3.84m/s时,在林后1(H为林带平均高度)H处,风速最小,同时防风效能最大,但随着水平距离的增加风速在逐渐升高而防风效能呈逐渐下降趋势。旷野风速越大,林带防风效能增大,有效防护距离变大。当旷野风速为5~6级时,在林内,1H,5H处的防风效能最好,防风效能范围为67.97%~94.27%。不同垂直高度上防风效能的变化趋势由大到小为:30,50,150,300cm,风速的分布规律变化趋势与防风效能正好相反,由大到小为:300,150,50,30cm。[结论]牧场防护林林带后的1~10H区域是林带的最佳保护区和作用范围,其中林后1H的防风效能最好,但会随着风速和垂直高度的变化而有一定的差异。     

河北坝上农田防护林防风效能及类型配置研究——以河北省康保县为例

通过野外试验观测,对比分析了不同种类和林网结构农田防护林的防风效能,在此基础上提出了区域防护林优化配置建议。结果表明:综合防风效应和有效防护距离因素分析,对乔木农田防护林的综合防风效应进行评价:疏透型农田防护林 > 通风型农田防护林 > 紧密型农田防护林护林;在垂直方向上,三种疏透度的乔木农田防护林在不同高度上大体遵循随高度的增加防风效能逐渐下降的趋势。乔灌混交林、灌木防护林平均防风效能:榆树+柠条的乔灌混交林带21.5% > 灌木防护林带20.5%,风速降低20%的有效防护距离分别出现在林后25H和12H。防护林建设方面乔灌木混交林应为首选;灌木防护林可布设在沙漠化严重的坡耕地或风口地带的农田;乔木防护林不是最佳的选择。     

干旱半干旱区落叶期农田防护林防风效果的风洞试验研究

探究落叶期不同结构乔灌木农田防护林带的空气动力学特征,合理配置林带结构对于减轻风季(10月-翌年5月)干旱、半干旱区农田土壤风蚀灾害具有重要意义。该研究利用风洞模拟技术,以"2行1带"式乔灌木林带为研究对象,按照1:100的缩尺比例,设计了不同疏透度、不同行距的林带模型,分析不同结构林带的风速廓线、防风效能和有效防护比,揭示落叶期不同结构林带空气流场特征和防风效果。结果表明:乔、灌木林带对空气流场垂直结构产生了不同影响,乔木林带对气流具有分层作用,风影区位于林带后5倍树高处(5H),灌木林带对气流具有抬升作用,风影区紧邻林带;疏透度较低的林带风速削弱作用更明显,疏透度45%、58%的乔木林带主要防风效能区间分别为20%～25%和15%～20%,疏透度36%、54%的灌木林带主要防风效能区间分别为10%～20%和5%～15%;在疏透度相近的条件下,行距对乔木林带防护效果的影响较小,在相同防风效能下不同行距乔木林带的累积有效防护比相差不到5个百分点,行距对灌木林带防护效果能产生较明显的影响,4cm行距灌木林带相比2.5cm行距林带在相同防风效能下的累积有效防护比高18～25个百分点;本研究中,乔木林带和灌木林带最优配置均为低疏透度(乔木45%、灌木35%)宽行距(乔木6 cm、灌木4 cm)模式。因此,在干旱、半干旱地区构建农田防护林带时,应当充分考虑林木落叶期的结构特征,针对乔木、灌木各自的特点有针对性地进行搭配,在合理的林带疏透度范围内,适当增大林带行距,以提高林带的防风能力,保障林木的健康生长。     

和田地区绿洲外围农田防护林带的防护效益

在和田地区新垦农地外围的流动沙地种植新疆杨乔木+沙拐枣灌木复合防护林,通过布设风速风向观测仪、沙尘通量梯度仪、温湿度和辐射等测定仪于林带前后,研究防护林网的防护效益,为营建绿洲外围防护林和合理开发利用荒漠区的土地资源提供理论依据。结果表明,防护林带的防风效能随着高度的增加而减弱,大于起沙风速(6m/s)时,新疆杨林带、沙拐枣林带在0.5m处的防风效能分别为67.2%和94.5%,在3m处的防风效能分别为31.3%和33.7%。随着风速的增大,沙拐枣林带和新疆杨林带的防风效能均减弱,新疆杨林带的减弱更为明显。防护林带有效地降低了地表风速,减轻地表风蚀。林带内的输沙量仅为外围的10%左右。此外,林带内的太阳辐射强度下降,温度降低,湿度显著增加。由此可见,防护林可以有效地起到防风固沙,改善区域小气候的作用。     

西北防护林防风效应研究

风沙灾害是中国西北地区普遍存在自然灾害之一.为探查西北防护林的防风效能.,选取甘肃民勤和宁夏盐池2个典型的风沙灾害区,采用样地调查、统计分析、回归模型等方法,对农田片状林不同距地高度和不同疏透度在有效距离内的防风效能进行观测与分析,并对防风固沙林对地表粗糙度的影响进行了研究.结果表明,在防护林树冠以下有效防风距离内,随距地高度的增加防风效能逐渐增加;防护林的疏透度与其防风效能晕极显著负相关,相关系数达-0.941;防风固沙林随其郁闭度的增加,地面粗糙度逐渐增大,并给出防护林郁闭度和地面粗糙度之间的函数关系式.并且对产生这些结果的因为进行了初步的讨论.     

新疆托克逊县不同配置防护林的防风蚀效能

[目的] 对比分析不同配置防护林迎风林缘与背风林缘的防风蚀效能,为干旱区绿洲城市防护林建设、防沙治沙以及生态环境改善工作提供理论依据。[方法] 以新疆托克逊县城郊区不同配置防护林为研究对象,通过观测近地表风速、起沙风速、近地表粗糙度、输沙量、风沙流结构等指标,对比研究混交林1（胡杨68%+柽柳32%）、混交林2（柽柳65%+胡杨35%）、梭梭林迎背风林缘的防风蚀效能。[结果] 不同配置防护林的地表粗糙度、起沙风速、风速廓线、防风阻沙效能都有差异。不同配置防护林地面粗糙度从高到底依次为：混交林2（0.569 cm）>混交林1（0.378 cm）>梭梭林（0.123 cm）。起沙风速从高到低依次为：混交林2（6.17 m/s）>梭梭林（6.02 m/s）>混交林1（5.98 m/s）。防风效能从强到弱依次为：混交林2>混交林1>梭梭林。阻沙效能依次为：梭梭林（48.2%）>混交林2（45.6%）>混交林1（37.1%）,各林地0—10 cm,10—20 cm垂直高度上的集沙量所占比例较高。[结论] 混交林2有效降低不同垂直高度的风速及输沙量,混交林2的防风蚀效能较高。     

前高后低型防风固沙林防风效应及其对风向的响应

[目的]研究由梭梭和柠条组成的前高后低型复合林带的防风效应及其对风向的响应,为荒漠绿洲、沙漠公路、沙漠铁路等防护区人工防风固沙林的营建提供理论依据。[方法]以具有不同个体特征的梭梭和柠条为原型制作仿真植物,配置成前高后低型林带,记作AmBn型,其中,"A"代表仿真植物梭梭,"m"代表其株行距为15cm×40cm,"B"代表仿真植物柠条,"n"代表其株行距为8.5cm×25cm。将其在反方向风作用时记为BnAm型。通过风洞模拟试验,在7,10,15m/s试验风速下,对两种类型林带主要影响区的风速变化、气流加速率和防风效能进行分析。[结果](1)气流到达林带前速度整体降低,到达林带后分化为上(30cm以上)、中(5—20cm)、下(3cm以下)3个特征层,下部气流层在AmBn型和BnAm型林带后的风速恢复点分别位于23和12.5H处。(2)AmBn型林带风影区的范围大于BnAm型林带;两种林带在A,B植物区的冠层高度处各形成一个风影核心区,形成双核模式。(3)在7,10,15m/s试验风速下,AmBn型林带考察区的平均防护效能分别为34.44%,34.98%和32.51%。BnAm型林带考察区的平均防风效能分别为22.62%,19.70%和19.41%。(4)垂直方向上,林带对约1.5H高度范围以下的气流起减速作用,对此范围以上的气流起加速作用;水平方向上,AmBn型林带的防风效能在带前、带中、带后均优于BnAm型林带。[结论]林带的防风效能与两种树种沿风向出现的先后顺序有关,从防护效能和防护距离考虑,建议在防护区外围营建AmBn型林带。     

乌兰布和沙漠东北缘人工梭梭林防风效能分析

[目的]测定乌兰布和沙漠东北缘不同林龄各坡位的风速,揭示梭梭林防风效能随林龄的变化规律以及与梭梭空间构型的关系。[方法]以乌兰布和沙漠东北缘种植3,5和8a的人工梭梭林为研究对象,通过测定林内及CK不同坡位距地表10,20,50,100,200cm高度处风速,对比不同年限梭梭林的防风效能。[结果]随着林龄的增加,梭梭林对近地表风速减弱作用增强;同一坡位下,3a梭梭林防风效能主要作用在0—100cm高度内,防风效能为48.19%,100—200cm高度内风速迅速恢复。5,8a梭梭林对0—200cm高度范围均有很好的防护作用,防风效能分别为69.72%,71.93%,二者间减弱效果差异不明显。相关分析显示梭梭林空间构型与防风效能显著相关,梭梭盖度、高度、冠幅与防风效能的相关性分别达到0.935,0.930,0.942。[结论]3a梭梭林迎风坡底、背风坡的防风效能优于迎风坡中、迎风坡顶,5,8a梭梭林与之相反。     

低氮和干旱胁迫对富士和秦冠生长及氮素利用的影响

【目的】以富士（Fuji）、 秦冠（Qinguan）嫁接在平邑甜茶（Malus hupehensis Rehd.）上的当年生盆栽苗为试验材料,采用砂培方法,研究了缺氮胁迫和干旱对富士和秦冠生长情况、 光合参数、 植株各部位氮磷钾含量及氮素利用效率的影响,分析比较了低氮干旱条件下富士和秦冠生长及氮素利用的差异,以期为果树生产高效肥水利用提供理论指导。【方法】试验共设四个处理: 正常氮正常水（ZZ）、 低氮正常水（DZ）、 正常氮干旱（ZG）、 低氮干旱（DG）。氮素和水分均设置两个水平,分别为正常氮（6 mmol/L NO-3-N）、 低氮（0.3 mmol/LNO-3-N）、 正常供水（保持盆中砂子相对含水量为饱和含水量的80%~85%）、 干旱处理（保持盆中砂子相对含水量为饱和含水量的60%~65%）。【结果】富士和秦冠的生物量（茎和叶）、 株高茎粗等生长指标以及光合速率、 气孔导度、 蒸腾速率均为正常氮正常水（ZZ）＞低氮正常水（DZ）＞正常氮干旱（ZG）＞低氮干旱（DG）,并且相对应处理下秦冠的以上指标均高于富士;正常供水下,缺氮处理使富士、 秦冠的根冠比比正常氮处理均有所增加,富士提高了2.05%,秦冠提高了22.40%。富士和秦冠的氮、 磷、 钾含量均表现出正常氮正常水（ZZ）＞低氮正常水（DZ）＞正常氮干旱（ZG）＞低氮干旱（DG）; 氮、 钾元素含量在植株各部位的分布顺序依次是叶＞根＞茎,磷元素则是根＞叶＞茎;光合氮素利用效率（PNUE）和氮素利用效率表现为秦冠处理之间差异极显著,富士处理之间差异不显著;秦冠的PNUE和NUE明显高于富士,在低氮正常水（DZ）处理下,秦冠氮肥利用率比富士高42.07%,在低氮干旱（DG）处理下高64.14%;低氮胁迫下富士和秦冠的NUE显著提高,并且秦冠提高的幅度高于富士。【结论】施用氮肥能够显著提高富士与秦冠的干物质量,同等水肥条件下,秦冠生长优于富士;水分亏缺会减少叶片对氮的吸收,干旱条件下适度增施氮肥,可提高果树的抗旱能力;低氮干旱胁迫下秦冠的生长指标、 光合指标及氮素利用效率指标均优于富士,表现出较强的抗低氮干旱胁迫的能力。     

Pasture Vegetation Elemental Analysis by Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy

Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) is a new technique for the analysis of plant material. This study investigates the application of LIBS to pasture-based plant samples. The LIBS measurements were obtained from pelletized pasture samples (100 samples) that had been also analyzed by inductively coupled plasma–optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) following microwave digestion for calibration and comparison purposes. Comparisons for elements sodium (Na), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), boron (B), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S) showed that LIBS could be used for almost all the standard profile total elements with concentrations down to low mg/kg levels (observed error of Na: 0.024 percent, K: 0.18 percent, Mg: 0.016 percent, Ca: 0.073 percent, P: 0.017 percent, Mn: 31 mg/kg, Fe: 150 mg/kg, Zn: 6.6 mg/kg, and B: 1.1 mg/kg). Elemental analysis at less than mg/kg levels was not possible using LIBS. The elements S and Cu were particularly difficult to analyze with reliability using LIBS at the concentration levels found in the plant samples. Replacing microwave digestion and subsequent ICP analysis with a direct analysis of dried plant samples using LIBS has the potential to improve the productivity and reduce the cost of testing.     

Faculty positions:Center for Agricultural Resources Research,Chinese Academy of Sciences

正The Center for Agricultural Resources Research(CARR),the Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology(IGDB),Chinese Academy of Sciences,invites applicants for several research group leader positions.CARR is one of the research organizations in Chinese Academy of Sciences(CAS).We seek nominations and applications from individuals who have expertise and a record of accomplishment in research areas related to ecology,agro-hydrology,     

Macroinvertebrates in North American tallgrass prairie soils: effects of fire, mowing, and fertilization on density and biomass

The responses of tallgrass prairie plant communities and ecosystem processes to fire and grazing are well characterized. However, responses of invertebrate consumer groups, and particularly soil-dwelling organisms, to these disturbances are not well known. At Konza Prairie Biological Station, we sampled soil macroinvertebrates in 1994 and 1999 as part of a long-term experiment designed to examine the effects and interactions of annual fire, mowing, and fertilization (N and P) on prairie soil communities and processes. For nearly all taxa, in both years, responses were characterized by significant treatment interactions, but some general patterns were evident. Introduced European earthworms (Aporrectodea spp. and Octolasion spp.) were most abundant in plots where fire was excluded, and the proportion of the total earthworm community consisting of introduced earthworms was greater in unburned, unmowed, and fertilized plots. Nymphs of two Cicada genera were collected (Cicadetta spp. and Tibicen spp.). Cicadetta nymphs were more abundant in burned plots, but mowing reduced their abundance. Tibicen nymphs were collected almost exclusively from unburned plots. Treatment effects on herbivorous beetle larvae (Scarabaeidae, Elateridae, and Curculionidae) were variable, but nutrient additions (N or P) usually resulted in greater densities, whereas mowing usually resulted in lower densities. Our results suggest that departures from historical disturbance regimes (i.e. frequent fire and grazing) may render soils more susceptible to increased numbers of European earthworms, and that interactions between fire, aboveground biomass removal, and vegetation responses affect the structure and composition of invertebrate communities in tallgrass prairie soils.     

Variation in quality parameters between and within 14 Nordic tree fruit and berry species

Abstract

A 3-year study was carried out to investigate quality parameters in 14 tree fruit and berry species grown in southern Norway. The species were blueberry, apple, aronia, sour cherry, sweet cherry, red raspberry, strawberry, blackcurrant, gooseberry, red currant and elderberry, harvested along with wild bilberry, cloudberry and lingonberry. Significant differences between species were identified for all quality parameters. The coefficient of variation between species was lowest for pH (12.5%), dry matter (18.9%) and soluble solids (25.3%), followed by titratable acids (59.3%), total phenolics (83.8%), antioxidant capacity FRAP (85.7%) and antiradical power by the DPPH-assay (97.8%), total monomeric anthocyanins (132%) and ascorbic acid (137%). Average coefficient of variation within species were lower and ranged from 4 (pH) to 62% (ascorbic acid). Only the FRAP values were significantly affected by harvesting year with lower levels in 2004 than in 2005 and 2006. There were significant interactions between species and harvesting year for dry matter, soluble solids, pH, ascorbic acid and FRAP. The results indicate generic ranges in composition within species independent upon growing location and climate, and the composition of the tree fruits and berries is not likely to deviate from these ranges. It is concluded that desirable composition of tree fruits and berries and their products should primarily be achieved by selection among species rather than searching fors broadened variation within individual species.     

Potassium Fixation and Release Characteristics in Rhizosphere and Nonrhizosphere Soils for a Rapeseed–Rice Cropping Sequence

Potassium (K) fixation and release in soil are important factors in the long-term sustainability of a cropping system. Changes in K concentration and characteristics of K fixation and release in rhizosphere and nonrhizosphere soils in the rapeseed (Brassica napus L.)–rice (Oryza sativa L.) rotation were investigated using a rhizobox system. The concentrations of different forms of K in both rhizosphere and nonrhizosphere soils decreased with plants compared to without plants, regardless of K fertilizer application. Potassium uptake by crops mainly came from the rhizosphere soil. In the treatment without K fertilizer (–K), the main form of K supplied by the soil to the crops was 1.0 mol L^?1 nitric acid (HNO₃) nonextractable K, followed by nonexchangeable K, and then exchangeable K. In the treatment with K fertilizer (+K), the main K forms supplied by the soil to the crops were exchangeable K and nonexchangeable K. The amount and rate of K fixation after one cycle of the rapeseed–rice rotation was greater in rhizosphere soil than in nonrhizosphere soil. The amount and rate of K fixation of soil in the +K treatment were significantly less than in the –K treatment. The cumulative amounts of K released with 1.0 mol L^?1 ammonium acetate (NH₄OAc) and 1.0 mol L^?1 HNO₃ extraction increased with the increasing numbers of extractions, but the K-releasing power of soil by successive extraction decreased gradually and finally became almost constant. The release of K was less in rhizosphere soil than in nonrhizosphere soil. The release of K in the +K treatment was similar to that in the –K treatment in rhizosphere soil, but the K release in nonrhizosphere soil was greater with the +K than the –K treatment. Overall, the information obtained in this study will be helpful in formulating more precise K fertilizer recommendations for certain soils.     

Increase in auxiliary photoprotective photosynthetic pigments in wheat seedlings induced by Azospirillum brasilense

Inoculation of wheat seedlings with the plant growth-promoting bacterium Azospirillum brasilense Cd was immobilized in alginate microbeads and, without applying any stress, significantly increased the quantity of several photosynthetic pigments, such as chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and the auxiliary photoprotective pigments violaxanthin, zeaxanthin, antheroxanthin, lutein, neoxanthin, and β-carotene. This resulted in greener plants with no apparent visible stress. After monitoring the quantity of photosynthetic pigments for 4 weeks, we observed that inoculated plants had higher quantities of pigments in shoot and stem. The greatest difference in the quantity of all pigments between inoculated and noninoculated plants occurred in the first week of growth. Regardless of treatment, the quantity of pigments in stems was three to four times less than the quantity of these pigments in shoots. Application of Azospirillum, either as liquid inoculant or as alginate microbeads, did not alter the positive effect of the bacteria on pigment production or the positive response of the plants towards A. brasilense Cd inoculation.     

In-situ enrichment and analysis of atrazine-degrading microbial communities using atrazine-containing porous beads

We examined the community composition of microbes that colonized atrazine-containing beads buried in agricultural soils that differed in atrazine treatment history. Bacterial abundance was 5-40-fold greater in atrazine-fortified beads. In beads containing 20 mg atrazine kg⁻¹ buried in soil with a history of atrazine application (conditioned soil), the abundance of Actinobacteria increased approximately 80-fold whereas in control soil, Actinobacteria were enriched only 10-fold and the gamma-Proteobacteria and Planctomycetes increased by 60- and 25-fold, respectively. The gamma-Proteobacteria were enriched by 120- and 230-fold in beads containing 200 mg atrazine kg⁻¹ in conditioned and control soil, respectively. The results demonstrate that BioSep^® beads are a suitable matrix for recruiting a diverse subset of the bacterial community involved in atrazine degradation.     

Genetic similarities among Spanisch populations of Agropyron, Elymus and Thinopyrum, using PCR-based markers

Arbitrary oligonucleotides were used as primers to amplifygenomic DNA of 48 wild Spanish populations of Agropyroncristatum, Elymus hispanicus,E. caninus,E. repens,Thinopyrum curvifolium, Th.junceum and Th.intermedium. Genetic diversity was analysedusing nineteen primers. The number of amplified products ranged from8 to 18 per primer and a total of 240 markers were scored. Differentlevels of intraspecific genetic diversity were found, the allogamousspecies E. repens andTh. intermedium being themost variable. Jaccard's similarity coefficients for internalmeasure within and between populations were used to produce a clusterdiagram. The results demonstrate differences in the degree ofsimilarity between taxonomic units. Interpopulational variability andinterspecific genomic relationships of these species arediscussed.     

Mycorrhizae,biocides, and biocontrol. 4. Response of a mixed culture of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and host plant to three fungicides

The effects of three commonly used fungicides on the colonization and sporulation by a mixture of three arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi consisting of Glomus etunicatum (Becker & Gerd.), Glomus mosseae (Nicol. & Gerd.) Gerd. & Trappe, and Gigaspora rosea (Nicol. & Schenck) in symbiosis with pea plants and the resulting response of the host-plant were examined. Benomyl, PCNB, and captan were applied as soil drenches at a rate of 20 mg active ingredient kg^-1 soil 2 weeks after transplanting pea seedlings in a silty clay-loam soil containing the mixed inocula of AM fungi (AM plants). Effects of fungicides were compared to untreated plants that were inoculated with fungi (AM control). The effect of mycorrhizal inoculation on plant growth was also examined by including nonmycorrhizal, non-fungicide-treated plants (non-AM control). Fungicides or inoculation with AM fungi had only a small effect on the final shoot weights of pea plants, but had greater effects on root length and seed yield. AM control plants had higher seed yields and lower root lengths than the corresponding non-AM plants, and the fungicide-treated AM plants had intermediate yields and root lengths. Seed N and P contents were likewise highest in AM control plants, lowest in non-AM plants, and intermediate in fungicide-treated AM plants. All three fungicides depressed the proportion (%) of root length colonized by AM fungi, but these differences did not translate to reductions in the total root length that was colonized, since roots were longer in the fungicide-treated AM plants. Pea plants apparently compensated for the reduction in AM-fungal metabolism due to fungicides by increasing root growth. Fungicides affected the population of the three fungi as determined by sporulation at the final harvest. Captan significantly reduced the number, relative abundance, and relative volume of G. rosea spores in the final population relative to the controls. The relative volume of G. etunicatum spores was greater in all the fungicide-treated soils, while G. mosseae relative volumes were only greater in the captan-treated soil. These findings show that fungicides can alter the species composition of an AM-fungal community. The results also show that AM fungi can increase seed yield without enhancing the vegetative shoot growth of host plants.