Use of saline–sodic waters through phytoremediation of calcareous saline–sodic soils

Use of poor-quality groundwater has become inevitable for irrigation to compensate rapidly increasing water demands in many arid and semiarid regions. Salinity and sodicity are the principal soil and water quality concerns in such areas. Many saline–sodic and sodic soils have saline or saline–sodic subsurface drainage waters. Amelioration of these soils needs a source of calcium (Ca²⁺) that can replace the excess exchangeable sodium (Na⁺). Most of these soils, however, contain calcite (CaCO₃) of extremely low solubility. The native calcite does not supply adequate levels of Ca²⁺ for soil amelioration as do other chemical amendments. Phytoremediation may help ameliorate such soils through cultivation of certain crops tolerant to ambient soil salinity and sodicity. This amelioration strategy works through plant root action to help dissolve CaCO₃ to supply adequate Ca²⁺ without the application of an amendment. During a 3-year field experiment conducted under irrigated conditions, we evaluated phytoremediation against soil application of gypsum and farm manure, and water treatment with sulphuric acid on a calcareous saline–sodic soil (pH_s=8.0–8.4, EC_e=24–32 dS m⁻¹, SAR=57–78, CaCO₃=45–50 g kg⁻¹ for the top 0.15 m depth; Calcic Haplosalids). A saline–sodic water (EC=2.9–3.4 dS m⁻¹, SAR=12.0–19.4, RSC=4.6–10.0 mmol_c l⁻¹, SAR_adj=15.6–18.4) was used to irrigate the rice (Oryza sativa L.) and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) crops grown in rotation. Active desalinisation and desodication processes were observed in all the treatments. After the final wheat crop, the 1.2 m soil profile EC_e was 7±0.5 dS m⁻¹ and SAR was 15±2 with non-significant treatment differences, indicating comparable soil amelioration effect of phytoremediation with other treatments. Better crop yields were obtained from the manure-treated plots, owing to its annual addition to the soil that possibly improved soil fertility. Phytoremediation needed minimum capital input because no initial investment was made to purchase the amendments.     

Model-based evaluation of irrigation needs in Mediterranean vineyards

The irregular rainfall distribution causes interannual variation of water status in Mediterranean vineyards. A frequential analysis of irrigation needs was carried out from continuous simulation of the soil water balance during 39?years in south France. The off-season soil water refilling was often incomplete, with a higher frequency in soils with a high total transpirable soil water (TTSW) and/or susceptible to runoff and high evaporation. On soils with high TTSW (over 250?mm), the irrigation need was nil or small (except in situations of high runoff) and focused on the beginning of the crop cycle. On soils with lower TTSW, the irrigation need increased on average and was spread all along the grapevine cycle due to the limited buffering effect of the soil water reservoir. For 100?mm TTSW, the irrigation need was 40–60?mm for half of the years. The calculated irrigation needs were sensitive to the soil (TTSW, susceptibility to runoff and evaporation) and canopy (crop coefficient) properties. Therefore, soil and canopy management should be considered together with irrigation for an integrated approach of water management.     

Field water supply:yield relationships of grain sorghum grown in three USA Southern Great Plains soils

Field water supply (FWS) combines the three sources of water used by a crop for evapotranspiration (ET), and consists of available soil water at planting (ASWP), rainfall, and irrigation. Examining the grain yield and FWS relationship (Y_g:FWS) may provide insight into the reported variability in crop water production functions such as water productivity (WP) and irrigation water productivity (IWP). Since water is most productive when entirely consumed in ET, diversion of FWS into non-ET losses such as drainage and excessive soil water evaporation results in declines in WP and IWP. The objective of this experiment was to examine the Y_g:FWS and Y_g:ET relationships of grain sorghum grown under a range of irrigation treatments (0, 25, 50, and 100% replacement of ET), beginning soil water contents, evaporative demands, in the Amarillo, Pullman, and Ulysses soils of the Great Plains. The purpose was to determine the amount of FWS beyond which declines in WP and IWP began to occur due to non-ET losses as indicated by a change in the slope and intercept of the Y_g:FWS and Y_g:ET relationships. Large amounts of non-ET irrigation application losses occurred in the finer-textured soils in the T-100 irrigation treatment. In both years, the T-100 irrigation application amounts and ASWP resulted in a FWS ranging from 750 to 870 mm which exceeded the maximum ET requirement of 530-630 mm and which reduced WP and IWP. Piecewise regression analysis of the Y_g:FWS and Y_g:ET relationships for the crops in the Pullman and Ulysses soils identified the knot point, or change in slope and intercept, in the FWS where both WP and IWP tended to be optimized. This was about 500 mm in both soils, and involved the utilization of about 250 mm in ASWP, irrigation applications averaging about 250 mm, and about 60-130 mm remaining in the soil at harvest. For the coarser-textured Amarillo soil, the yield response to increasing FWS was linear, because non-ET application losses such as drainage gradually increased with the irrigation application amount. The linear Y_g response in the sandy Amarillo soil and the piecewise Y_g responses in the clay and silt loams of the Pullman and Ulysses soils to FWS also reflected the difference in water-holding capacities of the soils that affected the amount of available water as irrigation increased. Irrigating without considering FWS resulted in non-ET irrigation application losses and declines in WP and IWP.     

Chloride toxicity in citrus

Summary Citrus orchards (cv. Valencia and cv. Washington Navel Orange) on sandy soils in semi-arid South Australia (evaporation 1,900 mm, rainfall 240 mm) are irrigated with water from the River Murray having a chloride content of less than one to over 10 meq/1 (electrical conductivity 0.35–1.4 dS/m). Field observations and the literature suggest that at irrigation water salinities above 4 meq/1 Cl-, yield losses might be expected due to toxic effects of chloride rather than osmotic effects.To assess these effects irrigations at four salinity levels (range 2 to 5 meq/1 Cl^–) were applied to mature oranges trees (cv. Washington Navel) grown on Rough Lemon rootstock. Irrigations were carefully scheduled, with a total annual application of about 1,100 mm. The treatments resulted in soil salinities of 0.9 to 1.5 mS/cm (as measured with 4-electrode probes, at a depth of 0–50 cm), leaf chloride content on individual trees of 0.2% to 1.2%, and individual tree yields of 300 to 340 kg of fruit. On this orchard, a yield decrement of about 20% per 1 meq/1 chloride in the irrigation water was calculated, above a threshold level of about 4.3 meq/1 (Fig. 5). Reasons are given to support the view that the yield decrements found were probably due to chloride toxicity rather than osmotic stress.     

A water balance model to estimate groundwater recharge in Rechna doab,Pakistan

The main objective of this study was to develop a procedure to evaluate various recharge components of a groundwater reservoir to estimate the long term average seasonal groundwater recharge in Rechna doab in the Punjab province of Pakistan. A regional lumped water balance model for the Rechna doab was developed and applied to estimate the long term a seasonal recharge to groundwater reservoir. For comparison, recharge was also estimated by a specific yield method from observed groundwater levels. A water balance study was conducted on seasonal basis (6 months) for a period of 31 years (1960–1990). Recharge estimated by the two methods was found to be in good agreement. The average value of net groundwater recharge during Kharif (April–September) season was found to be some 60 mm. No recharge occurred during Rabi (October–March), rather there was a depletion of the groundwater reservoir during the winter months. Long term average annual depletion of a groundwater reservoir was found to be greater than corresponding value of annual recharge. It was concluded that on a regional basis the groundwater reservoir was being depleted resulting in an average groundwater table of Rechna doab about 2.3 m fall over the 1960–1990 period.     

Drought is a major yield loss factor for rainfed East African highland banana

Although drought stress has been identified among the production constraints of East African highland bananas (Musa spp., AAA-EA genome), no quantitative data were available to support this assumption. This study uses data from three on-station fertilizer trials (5-6 cycles) in Central and Southwest Uganda to quantify the effect of drought stress on banana production and explore possible interactions with nutrient availability. Production data were collected at individual plant basis from 1996 to 2002 in one trial and from 2004 to 2009 in two trials. Cumulative rainfall in the 12 months before harvest (CRF₁₂) was computed per plant from daily rainfall measurements. Average bunch weight ranged from 8.0 to 21.9 kg between trials and cycles and was 8-28% less in dry (CRF₁₂ ≤ 905 mm) than in normal (905 < CRF₁₂ ≤ 1365 mm) rainfall periods. Linear relations were observed between CRF₁₂ and maximum bunch weight over the whole range of observed CRF₁₂ (500-1750 mm), whereby every 100 mm decline in rainfall caused maximum bunch weight losses of 1.5-3.1 kg or 8-10%. Optimum annual rainfall for East African highland bananas may thus be well above 1200-1300 mm yr⁻¹ as suggested earlier. Relative drought-induced yield losses were independent of soil fertility. Absolute losses on fertile/fertilized soils were similar to those recorded in well fertilized irrigation studies in Latin America. Our study suggests that drought-induced yield losses in areas of the East African highlands with annual rainfall < 1100 mm are perhaps as high as 20-65% compared to the wetter areas in this region. To improve productivity of smallholder banana farmers in Africa, more attention should be given to research geared towards improved water/drought stress management.     

Combining hydrological modeling and GIS approaches to determine the spatial distribution of groundwater recharge in an arid irrigation scheme

Accurate quantification of the rate of groundwater (GW) recharge, a pre-requisite for the sustainable management of GW resources, needs to capture complex processes, such as the upward flow of water under shallow GW conditions, which are often disregarded when estimating recharge at a larger scale. This paper provides (1) a method to determine GW recharge at the field level, (2) a consequent procedure for up-scaling these findings from field to irrigation scheme level and (3) an assessment of the impacts of improved irrigation efficiency on the rate of GW recharge. The study is based on field data from the 2007 growing season in a Water Users Association (WUA Shomakhulum) in Khorezm district of Uzbekistan, Central Asia, an arid region that is characterized by a predominance of cotton, wheat and rice under irrigation. Previous qualitative studies in the region reported irrigation water supplies far above the crop water requirements, which cause GW recharge. A field water balance model was adapted to the local irrigation scheme; recharge was considered to be a fraction of the irrigation water losses, determined as the difference between net and gross irrigation requirements. Capillary rise contribution from shallow GW levels was determined with the HYDRUS-1D model. Six hydrological response units (HRUs) were created based on GW levels and soil texture using GIS and remote sensing techniques. Recharge calculated at the field level was up-scaled first to these HRUs and then to the whole WUA. To quantify the impact of improved irrigation efficiency on recharge rates, four improved irrigation efficiency scenarios were developed. The area under cotton had the second highest recharge (895 mm) in the peak irrigation period, after rice with 2,514 mm. But with a low area share of rice in the WUA of <1 %, rice impacted the total recharge only marginally. Due to the higher recharge rates of cotton, which is grown on about 40 % of the cropped area, HRUs with a higher share of cotton showed higher recharge (9.6 mm day^?1 during August) than those with a lower share of cotton (4.4 mm day^?1). The high recharge rates in the cotton fields were caused by its water requirements and the special treatment given to this crop by water management planners due to its strategic importance in the country. The scenario simulations showed that seasonal recharge under improved irrigation efficiency could potentially be reduced from 4 mm day^?1 (business-as-usual scenario) to 1.4 mm day^?1 (scenario with maximum achievable efficiency). The combination of field-level modeling/monitoring and GIS approaches improved recharge estimates because spatial variability was accounted for, which can assist water managers to assess the impact of improved irrigation efficiencies on groundwater recharge. This impact assessment enables managers to identify options for a recharge policy, which is an important component of integrated management of surface and groundwater resources.     

考虑未来降水的南方水稻灌溉风险决策节水效果分析

提高降雨利用率是节约灌溉用水的一种有效途径。提出了一种考虑未来降水的灌溉风险决策方法,以广西青狮潭灌区为例验证这一方法的节水效果。收集了桂林站2013-2014两年早稻和晚稻生育期逐日对未来7d的气象预报数据和相应时段的气象观测数据,推求了两年淹灌和间歇灌溉两种灌溉模式下采用常规灌溉决策和风险灌溉决策的灌溉制度,并分析了风险决策的节水效果。结果表明,早稻和晚稻平均降低灌水量23.5和21.9mm,节水分别为38.3%和6.7%。采用风险决策可以避免因灌后遇雨造成的灌水浪费,从而减少灌溉用水量、排水量以及灌水次数。     

Supplemental irrigation — a safeguard technique for successful cultivation of Monsoon rice (Transplanted Aman) in Bangladesh

The study was conducted in Monsoon (Transplanted Aman) at BRRI farm, Joydebpur, from 1978–1987, to determine the impact and viability of supplemental irrigation. The results of 8 years of experimentation indicate that the impact of supplemental irrigation mainly depends on rainfall distribution patterns and the last precipitation of the season. Generally, the late transplanted crops suffer from moisture stress when the last rainfall ceases by the first week of October. Under this situation, one timely supplemental irrigation of 60 mm could produce about 58% more yield, and the consequent benefit cost ratio of supplemental irrigation would be 5.3 to 14.5, which is highly profitable. The study reveals that if the last rainfall continues up to the third week of October, the supplemental irrigation is still profitable. When sufficient rainfall occurs in November, there is no need for supplemental irrigation, even in late transplanting, and continuous standing water is not required for rice cultivation provided the rain water can be managed properly.Abbreviations BADC Bangladesh Agriculture Development Corporation - B/C Ratio Benefit Cost Ratio - BRRI Bangladesh Rice Research Institute - HYV High Yielding Variety     

基于数据融合算法的灌区蒸散发空间降尺度研究

采用Landsat和MODIS数据,通过增强自适应融合算法(Enhanced spatial and temporal adaptive reflectance fusion model,ESTARFM)对蒸散发进行空间降尺度,构建田块尺度蒸散发数据集;利用2015年田间水量平衡方法计算的蒸散发数据对融合结果进行评价。在融合蒸散发基础上,结合解放闸灌域2000—2015年间种植结构信息,提取不同作物各自生育期和非生育期内年际蒸散发量,并分析了大型灌区节水改造以来,作物蒸散发占比的年际变化。研究结果表明:融合蒸散发与水量平衡蒸散发变化过程较吻合,小麦耗水峰值出现在6月中下旬—7月初,玉米和向日葵峰值出现在7月份。在相关性分析中,玉米、小麦和向日葵的决定系数R2分别达到了0.85、0.79和0.82;生育期内玉米(5—10月份)、小麦(4—7月份)和向日葵(6—10月份)的均方根误差均不高于0.70 mm/d;平均绝对误差均不高于0.75 mm/d;相对误差均不高于16%。在农田蒸散发总量验证中,融合蒸散发与水量平衡蒸散发相关性较好,两者决定系数达到了0.64。基于ESTARFM融合算法生成的高分辨率蒸散发(ET)结果可靠,具有较好的融合精度。融合结果与Landsat蒸散发的空间分布和差异性一致,7月23日、8月24日和9月1日相关系数分别达到0.85、0.81和0.77;差值均值分别为0.24 mm、0.19 mm和0.22 mm;标准偏差分别为0.81 mm、0.72 mm和0.61 mm。ESTARFM融合算法在农田蒸散发空间降尺度得到较好的应用,可有效区分不同作物蒸散发之间的差异。不同作物在生育期和非生育期内耗水量差别较大;生育期内套种(4—10月份)耗水量最大,达到637 mm,玉米(5—10月份)和向日葵(6—10月份)次之,分别为598 mm和502 mm,小麦(4—7月份)最低为412 mm;非生育期内,小麦(8—10月份)耗水量最大,年均达到214 mm,玉米(4月份)和向日葵(4—5月份)分别为42 mm和128 mm。不同作物多年平均耗水量(4—10月份)差异较小,其年际耗水总量主要随作物种植面积的变化而变化。     

1968―2018年民勤地区参考作物需水量的年际变化特征及相关气象影响因子研究

【目的】研究民勤地区作物需水量的主要影响因子。【方法】基于民勤地区1968―2018年气象数据,利用Penman-Monteith公式计算了不同时间尺度的平均参考作物需水量ET0,分析ET0变化趋势,并与气象因子变化趋势进行相关性拟合。【结果】1968―2018年民勤地区年平均参考作物需水量呈波动上升趋势,最低值为1968年的3.15mm/d,最高值为2013年的3.72 mm/d,且参考作物需水量的上升趋势是从2003年开始最为明显;参考作物需水量与年平均最高气温、年平均最低气温、年平均气温、年平均相对湿度、年平均日照时间以及年平均风速的相关性比较显著,与降雨量和净辐射相关关系不显著。【结论】民勤地区的干旱状况目前处于平稳期,年平均最高气温和年平均相对湿度是导致民勤地区参考作物需水量年际变化的最主要的气象因子。     

Estimates of deep percolation beneath cotton in the Macquarie Valley

Expansion of flood irrigation in the Lower Macquarie Valley of New South Wales, Australia, has been suggested as a major cause of increased groundwater recharge. The aim of this study was to estimate deep percolation under irrigation on two soils in the valley, in order to infer groundwater recharge. Three methods were used; water balance, Darcian flux calculations and chloride mass balance modelling. Chloride mass balance modelling and the water balance method gave comparable estimates of deep percolation for each soil. Chloride mass balance modelling was identified as the most reliable method for estimating deep percolation, but only gave an estimate for the entire growing season. These estimates were 214 and 104 mm for a cracking clay and red brown earth, respectively. While there is potentially greater error associated with estimates obtained using the water balance, this technique provided estimates of deep percolation for each individual irrigation. Results of the water balance indicated that deep percolation was greatest early in the growing season, following initial wetting of the soil, when the crop had a low leaf area index. Results calculated using Darcian flux equations were highly variable, and were therefore unreliable estimates of deep percolation. Groundwater recharge, inferred from estimates of deep percolation determined with the chloride mass balance model, was used to estimate the magnitude of potential annual groundwater rise. The potential groundwater rise during the 1992/1993 cotton growing season ranged from 465 mm beneath the cracking clay to 267 mm under the red brown earth. It is suggested that groundwater recharge and rise were highly dependent on the weather conditions prevailing during this period. Received: 24 January 1997     

Evapotranspiration, seed yield and water use efficiency of drip irrigated sunflower under full and deficit irrigation conditions

Deficit irrigation occurrence while maintaining acceptable yield represents a useful trait for sunflower production wherever irrigation water is limited. A 2-year experiment (2003–2004) was conducted at Tal Amara Research Station in the Bekaa Valley of Lebanon to investigate sunflower response to deficit irrigation. In the plots, irrigation was held at early flowering (stage F1), at mid flowering (stage F3.2) and at early seed formation (stage M0) until physiological maturity. Deficit-irrigated treatments were referred to as WS1, WS2 and WS3, respectively, and were compared to a well-irrigated control (C). Reference evapotranspiration (ET_rye-grass) and crop evapotranspiration (ET_crop) were measured each in a set of two drainage lysimeters of 2 m × 2 m × 1 m size cultivated with rye grass (Lolium perenne) and sunflower (Helianthus annuus L., cv. Arena). Crop coefficients (K_c) in the different crop growth stages were derived as the ratio (ET_crop/ET_rye-grass).

Lysimeter measured crop evapotranspiration (ET_crop) totaled 765 mm in 2003 and 882 mm in 2004 for total irrigation periods of 139 and 131 days, respectively. Daily ET_crop achieved a peak value of 13.0 mm day⁻¹ at flowering time (stage F3.2; 80–90 days after sowing) when LAI was >6.0 m² m⁻². Then ET_crop declined to 6.0 mm day⁻¹ during seed maturity phase. Average K_c values varied from 0.3 at crop establishment (sowing to four-leaf stage), to 0.9 at late crop development (four-leaf stage to terminal bud), to >1.0 at flowering stage (terminal bud to inflorescence visible), then to values <1.0 at seed maturity phase (head pale to physiological maturity). Measured K_c values were close to those reported by the FAO.

Average across years, seed yield at dry basis on the well-irrigated treatment was 5.36 t ha⁻¹. Deficit irrigation at early (WS1) and mid (WS2) flowering stages reduced seed yield by 25% and 14% (P < 0.05), respectively, in comparison with the control. However, deficit irrigation at early seed formation was found to increase slightly seed yield in WS3 treatment (5.50 t ha⁻¹). We concluded that deficit irrigation at early seed formation (stage M0) increased the fraction of assimilate allocation to the head, compensating thus the lower number of seeds per m² through increased seed weight. In this experiment, while deficit irrigation did not result in any remarkable increase in harvest index (HI), water use efficiency (WUE) was found to vary significantly (P < 0.05) among treatments, where the highest (0.83 kg m⁻³) and the lowest (0.71 kg m⁻³) values were obtained from WS3 and WS1 treatments, respectively. Finally, results indicate that irrigation limitation at early flowering (stage F1) and mid flowering (stage F3.2) should be avoided while it can be acceptable at seed formation (stage M0).     

东北半干旱区大豆抗旱灌溉最佳供水模式的盆栽试验研究

东北半干旱区是我国北方旱农地区的重要组成部分,多数地区没有灌溉水源。从气候条件来看,由于本区降水量少,年变化和季节变化大,春季多大风,蒸发强烈,春旱十分严重,已成为制约本区农业生产的主要因素。本研究针对本区的资源环境和灾害特点等,选取了坐水播种和苗期补灌技术,并进行了盆栽试验研究,提出了坐水、补水条件下的产量最佳供水模式,旨在探索适合于东北半干旱区的农业抗旱节水技术集成模式。     

Modelling the fate of water and nitrogen in the mixed vegetable farming systems of northern Tasmania, Australia

A combination of high input management systems, high annual rainfall and deep, permeable soils in northern Tasmania create conditions that are conducive to high drainage and nitrogen losses below the root zone. An understanding of the extent and mechanism of such losses will enable farm managers and their consultants to identify and implement more sustainable management practices that minimise potential adverse financial and environmental consequences. Analysing the fate of water and nutrients in farming systems is complex and influenced by a wide range of factors including management, soil characteristics, seasonal climate variability and management history of the paddock/farm in question. This paper describes a novel farm system modelling approach based on the model APSIM, for analysing the fate of nitrogen and water in mixed vegetable-based farming enterprises. The study was based on seven case farms across the Panatana catchment in northern Tasmania. Substantial simulated drainage losses (>100 mm average seasonal loss) were apparent for all crop and rotation elements across all farms in response to the surplus between crop water supply and crop water use. Crop nitrogen demand was found to be close to crop nitrogen supply for all crop and pasture rotation elements with the exception of potato, which had an average surplus nitrogen supply of 89 kg N/ha. This resulted in potato having much higher nitrate nitrogen leaching losses (32 kg N/ha) compared to other crops (<10 kg N/ha). Simulations suggest that practicable management options such as deficit-based irrigation and reduced N fertiliser rates will maintain current levels of productivity while reducing potential offsite N loss and generating significant financial savings via reduced input costs.     

Evaluation of options for increasing yield and water productivity of wheat in Punjab, India using the DSSAT-CSM-CERES-Wheat model

The DSSAT-CSM-CERES-Wheat V4.0 model was calibrated for yield and irrigation scheduling of wheat with 2004–2005 data and validated with 13 independent data sets from experiments conducted during 2002–2006 at the Punjab Agricultural University (PAU) farm, Ludhiana, and in a farmer's field near PAU at Phillaur, Punjab, India. Subsequently, the validated model was used to estimate long-term mean and variability of potential yield (Y_p), drainage, runoff, evapo-transpiration (ET), crop water productivity (CWP), and irrigation water productivity (IWP) of wheat cv. PBW343 using 36 years (1970–1971 to 2005–2006) of historical weather data from Ludhiana. Seven sowing dates in fortnightly intervals, ranging from early October to early January, and three irrigation scheduling methods [soil water deficit (SWD)-based, growth stage-based, and ET-based] were evaluated. For the SWD-based scheduling, irrigation management depth was set to 75 cm with irrigation scheduled when SWD reached 50% to replace 100% of the deficit. For growth stage-based scheduling, irrigation was applied either only once at one of the key growth stages [crown root initiation (CRI), booting, flowering, and grain filling], twice (two stages in various combinations), thrice (three stages in various combinations), or four times (all four stages). For ET-driven irrigation, irrigations were scheduled based on cumulative net ETo (ETo-rain) since the previous irrigation, for a range of net ETo (25, 75, 125, 150, and 175 mm). Five main irrigation schedules (SWD-based, ET-driven with irrigation applied after accumulation of either 75 or 125 mm of ETo, i.e., ET75 or ET125, and growth stage-based with irrigation applied at CRI plus booting, or at CRI plus booting plus flowering stage) were chosen for detailed analysis of yield, water balance, and CWP and IWP. Nitrogen was non-limiting in all the simulations.Mean Y_p across 36 years ranged from 5.2 t ha⁻¹ (10 October sowing) to 6.4 t ha⁻¹ (10 November sowing), with yield variations due to seasonal weather greater than variations across sowing dates. Yields under different irrigation scheduling, CWP and IWP were highest for 10 November sowing. Yields and CWP were higher for SWD and ET75-based irrigations on both soils, but IWP was higher for ET75-based irrigation on sandy loam and for ET150-based irrigation on loam. Simulation results suggest that yields, CWP, and IWP of PBW343 would be highest for sowing between late October and mid-November in the Indian Punjab. It is recommended that sowing be done within this planting period and that irrigation be applied based on the atmospheric demand and soil water status and not on the growth stage. Despite the potential limitations recognised with simulation results, we can conclude that DSSAT-CSM-CERES-Wheat V4.0 is a useful decision support system to help farmers to optimally schedule and manage irrigation in wheat grown in coarse-textured soils under declining groundwater table situations of the Indian Punjab. Further, the validated model and the simulation results can also be extrapolated to other areas with similar climatic and soil environments in Asia where crop, soil, weather, and management data are available.     

Irrigation scheduling of cotton in a climate with uncertain rainfall

Summary An investigation was made of the irrigation requirements of cotton grown in a sub-humid environment with significant but highly variable rainfall. In the first year of the study, no additional yield benefits accrued to subsequent irrigations following a pre-emergent irrigation due to above average rainfall (550 mm) throughout the growing season. In the second year a similar rainfall amount (502 mm) fell but significant yield increases to irrigation resulted due to the uneven distribution of the rainfall. The main effect was associated with later rains which influenced the number of bolls set. The maximum amount of water extracted by cotton from a deep grey cracking clay was 178 mm. It was found that 70% of this amount could be depleted before irrigation without loss of yield. Crop evapotranspiration varied from 607 mm with no irrigation after emergence to 775 mm following three irrigations. Irrigation was associated with significant losses from rainfall runoff. Too frequent irrigation creates a risk that soil will be too wet to permit utilisation of natural rainfall. Therefore, the use of soil water information to maximise the interval between irrigation is proposed as a necessary basis for efficient irrigation management.     

Assessment of irrigation and environmental quality at the hydrological basin level: II. Salt and nitrate loads in irrigation return flows

Irrigation return flows may induce salt and nitrate pollution of receiving water bodies. The objectives of this study were to perform a salt and nitrogen mass balance at the hydrological basin level and to quantify the salt and nitrate loads exported in the drainage waters of three basins located in a 15,500 ha irrigation district of the Ebro River Basin (Spain). The main salt and nitrogen inputs and outputs were measured or estimated in these basins along the 2001 hydrological year. Groundwater inflows in the three basins and groundwater outflow in one basin were significant components of the measured mass balances. Thus, the off-site impact ascribed solely to irrigation in these basins was estimated in the soil drainage water. Salt concentrations in soil drainage were low (TDS of around 400–700 mg/l, depending on basins) due to the low TDS of irrigation water and the low presence of salts in the geologic materials, and were inversely related to the drainage fractions (DF = 37–57%). However, due to these high DF, salt loads in soil drainage were relatively high (between 3.4 and 4.7 Mg/ha), although moderate compared to other areas with more saline geological materials. Nitrate concentrations and nitrogen loads in soil drainage were highest (77 mg NO₃⁻/l and 195 kg N/ha) in basin III, heavily fertilized (357 kg N/ha), with the highest percentage of corn and with shallow, low water retention flood-irrigated soils. In contrast, the lowest nitrate concentrations and nitrogen loads (21 mg NO₃⁻/l and 23 kg N/ha) were found in basin II, fertilized with 203 kg N/ha and preponderant in deep, alluvial valley soils, crops with low N requirements (alfalfa and pasture), the highest non-cropped area (26% of total) and with fertigation practices in the sprinkler-irrigated fields (36% of the irrigated area). Thus, 56% of the N applied by fertilization was lost in soil drainage in basin III, as compared to only 16% in basin II. In summary, a low irrigation efficiency coupled to an inadequate management of nitrogen fertilization are responsible for the low-salt, high-nitrate concentrations in soil and surface drainage outflows from the studied basins. In consequence, higher irrigation efficiencies, optimized nitrogen fertilization and the reuse for irrigation of the low-salt, high-nitrate drainage waters are key management strategies for a better control of the off-site pollution from the studied irrigation district.     

Different indices to characterize water use pattern of micro-sprinkler irrigated onion (Allium cepa L.)

The amount of water used by any crop largely depends on the extent to which the soil water depletion from the root zone is being recharged by appropriate depth of irrigation. To test this hypothesis a field study was carried out in November–March of 2002–2003 and 2003–2004 on a sandy loam (Aeric haplaquept) to quantify the effect of depth of irrigation applied through micro-sprinklers on onion (Allium cepa L.) bulb yield (BY) and water use patterns. Seven irrigation treatments consisted of six amounts of sprinkler applied water relative to compensate crop (K_c) and pan (K_p) coefficient-based predicted evapotranspiration loss from crop field (ET_p) (i) 160% of ET_p (1.6ET_p); (ii) 1.4ET_p; (iii) 1.2ET_p; (iv) 1.0ET_p; (v) 0.8ET_p; (vi) 0.6ET_p; (vii) 40 mm of surface applied water whenever cumulative pan evaporation equals to 33 mm. Water use efficiency (WUE), net evapotranspiration efficiency (WUE_ET) and irrigation water use efficiency (WUE_I) were computed. Marginal water use efficiency (MWUE) and elasticity of water productivity (EWP) of onion were calculated using the relationship between BY and measured actual evapotranspiration (ET_c). Yield increased with increasing sprinkler-applied water from 0.6 to 1.4ET_p. Relative to the yield obtained at 0.6ET_p, yield at 1.0ET_p increased by 23–25% while at 1.4ET_p it was only 3–9% greater than that at 1.0ET_p. In contrast, yield at 1.6ET_p was 9–12% less than that at 1.4ET_p. Maximum WUE (7.21 kg m⁻³) and WUE_ET (13.87 kg m⁻³) were obtained under 1.0ET_p. However, the highest WUE_I (3.83 kg m⁻³) was obtained with 1.2ET_p. The ET_c associated with the highest WUE was 20% less than that required to obtain the highest yields. This study confirmed that critical levels of ET_c needed to obtain maximum BYs, or WUE, could be obtained more precisely from the knowledge of MWUE and EWP.     

Simulation of bromide and nitrate leaching under heavy rainfall and high-intensity irrigation rates in North China Plain

Heavy rainfall and irrigations during the summer months in the North China Plain may cause losses of nitrogen because of nitrate leaching. The objectives of this study were to characterize the leaching of accumulated N in soil profiles, and to determine the usefulness of Br⁻ as a tracer of surface-applied N fertilizer under heavy rainfall and high irrigation rates. A field experiment with bare plots was conducted near Beijing from 5 July to 6 September 2006. The experiment included three treatments: no irrigation (rainfall only, I0), farmers’ practice irrigation (rainfall plus 100 mm irrigation, I100) and high-intensity irrigation (rainfall plus 500 mm irrigation, I500), with three replicates. Transport of surface-applied Br⁻ and NO₃⁻ (assuming no initial NO₃⁻ in the soil profile) and accumulated NO₃⁻ in soil profiles were all simulated with the HYDRUS-1D model. The model simulation results showed that Br⁻ leached through the soil profile faster than NO₃⁻. When Br⁻ was used as a tracer for surface-applied N fertilizer to estimate nitrate leaching losses, the amount of N leaching may be overestimated by about 10%. Water drainage and nitrate leaching were dramatically increased as the irrigation rate was increased. The amounts of N leaching out of the 2.1-m soil profile under I0, I100 and I500 treatments were 195 ± 84, 392 ± 136 and 612 ± 211 kg N ha⁻¹, equivalent to about 20 ± 5%, 40 ± 6% and 62 ± 7% of the accumulative N in the soil profile, respectively. N was leached more deeply as the irrigation rate increased. The larger amount of initial accumulated N was in soil profile, the higher percentage of N leaching was. N leaching was also simulated in summer under different weather conditions from 1986 to 2006. The results indicated that nitrate leaching in rainy years were significantly higher than those in dry and normal years. Increasing the irrigation times and decreasing the single irrigation rate after fertilizer application should be recommended.