Modeling spatial variation in productivity due to tillage and water erosion

The advent of precision farming practices has heightened interest in managing field variability to optimize profitability. The large variation in yields across many producer fields demonstrated by yield–monitor–equipped combines has generated concern about management-induced causes of spatial variation in soil productivity. Soil translocation from erosion processes may result in variation in soil properties across field landscape positions that produce long-term changes in soil productivity. The objective of this study was to examine the relationships between soil redistribution caused by tillage and water erosion and the resulting spatial variability of soil productivity in a soil catena in eastern South Dakota. An empirical model developed to estimate tillage erosion was used to evaluate changes expected in the soil profile over a 50-year period on a typical toposequence found in eastern South Dakota and western Minnesota. Changes in the soil profile due to water erosion over a 50-year period were evaluated using the WEPP hillslope model. The tillage erosion model and the WEPP hillslope model were run concurrently for a 50-year period to evaluate the combined effect of the two processes. The resulting changes in soil properties of the root zone were evaluated for changes in productivity using a productivity index model. Tillage erosion resulted in soil loss in the shoulder position, while soil loss from water erosion occurred primarily in the mid to lower backslope position. The decline in soil productivity was greater when both processes were combined compared to either process acting alone. Water erosion contributed to nearly all the decline in soil productivity in the backslope position when both tillage and water erosion processes were combined. The net effect of soil translocation from the combined effects of tillage and water erosion is an increase in spatial variability of crop yields and a likely decline in overall soil productivity.     

Measurement and modelling of the effects of initial soil conditions and slope gradient on soil translocation by tillage

Tillage erosion studies have mainly focused on the effect of topography and cultivation practices on soil translocation during tillage. However, the possible effect of initial soil conditions on soil displacement and soil erosion during tillage have not been considered. This study aims at investigating the effect of the initial soil conditions on net soil displacement and the associated erosion rates by a given tillage operation of a stony loam soil. Tillage erosion experiments were carried out with a mouldboard plough on a freshly ploughed (pre-tilled) soil and a soil under grass fallow in the Alentejo region (Southern Portugal).

The experimental results show that both the downslope displacement of soil material and the rate of increase of the downslope displacement with slope gradient are greater when the soil is initially in a loose condition. This was attributed to: (i) a greater tillage depth on the pre-tilled soil and (ii) a reduced internal cohesion of the pre-tilled soil, allowing clods to roll and/or slide down the plough furrow after being overturned by the mouldboard plough.

An analysis of additional available data on soil translocation by mouldboard tillage showed that downslope displacement distances were only significantly related to the slope gradient when tillage is carried out in the downslope direction. When tillage is carried out in the upslope direction, the effect of slope gradient on upslope displacement distances was not significant. This has important implications for the estimation of the tillage transport coefficient, which is a measure for the intensity of tillage erosion, from experimental data. For our experiments, estimated values of the tillage transport coefficient were 70 and 254 kg m⁻¹ per tillage operation for grass fallow and pre-tilled conditions, respectively, corresponding to local maximum erosion rates of ca. 8 and 35 Mg ha⁻¹ per tillage operation and local maximum deposition rates of ca. 33 and 109 Mg ha⁻¹ per tillage operation.     

Fine-earth translocation by tillage in stony soils in the Guadalentin, south-east Spain: an investigation using caesium-134

Tillage erosion is increasingly recognised as an important soil erosion process on agricultural land. In view of its potential significance, there is a clear need to broaden the experimental database for the magnitude of tillage erosion to include a range of tillage implements and agricultural environments. The study discussed in this paper sought to address the need for such data by examining tillage erosion by a duckfoot chisel plough in stony soils on steep slopes in a semi-arid environment. Results of the investigation of coarse fraction (rock fragment) translocation by tillage in this environment have been presented elsewhere and the paper focuses on tillage translocation and erosion of the fine earth. Tillage translocation was measured at 10 sites, representing both upslope and downslope tillage by a duckfoot chisel plough on five different slopes, with tangents ranging from 0.02 to 0.41. A fine-earth tracer, comprising fine earth labelled with ¹³⁴Cs, was introduced into the plough layer before tillage. After a single pass of the plough, incremental samples of plough soil were excavated and sieved to separate the fine earth from the rock fragments. Translocation of the fine-earth tracer was established by analysing the ¹³⁴Cs content of the samples of fine earth. These data were used to establish translocation distances for each combination of slope and tillage direction. Translocation distances of the fine earth were not significantly different from translocation distances of the coarse fraction. For all sites, except uphill on the 0.41 slope, translocation distances were found to be linearly related to slope tangent. The soil flux due to tillage for each site was calculated using the translocation distance and the mass per unit area of the plough layer. For slopes with tangents <0.25, the relationship between soil flux and tangent was linear and the soil flux coefficient derived was 520–660 kg m⁻¹ per pass. This is much larger than the coefficients found in other studies and this high magnitude is attributed to the non-cohesive nature and high rock fragment content of the soil in this investigation. A second contrast with previous studies was found in non-linearity in the relationship between soil flux and tangent when steeper slopes were included. This was a product of variation in plough depth between the steepest slopes and the remainder of the study area. On the basis of the study it is suggested that an improved understanding of tillage erosion may be obtained by considering the dual processes of tillage detachment (mass per unit area of soil subject to tillage) and tillage displacement (equivalent to translocation distance per pass) in assessing, comparing and modelling tillage translocation. An improved model is proposed that recognises the complexity of soil redistribution by tillage, provides a framework for process-based investigation of the controls on tillage fluxes, and allows identification of potential self-limiting conditions for tillage erosion.     

Tillage translocation and tillage erosion in the complex upland landscapes of southwestern Ontario, Canada

Tillage translocation and tillage erosion were measured throughout the topographically complex landscapes of two fields in the upland region of southwestern Ontario. Translocation of soil by tillage was measured by labelling plots of soil with chloride and measuring the tracer's forward displacement in response to single passes by four tillage implements (mouldboard plough, chisel plough, tandem disc and field cultivator). The change in translocation within the landscape was used to measure tillage erosion. All four implements were erosive. A relationship between tillage translocation and slope gradient was observed; however, the variability in translocation could not be explained by slope gradient alone. Slope curvature was responsible for some translocation through the planning action of tillage implements. Tillage depth and speed were subject to considerable discontinuous and inconsistent manipulation by the operator in response to changing topographic and soil conditions. Tillage speed decreased by as much as 60% during upslope tillage and increased by as much as 30% during downslope tillage, relative to that on level ground. Tillage depth decreased by as much as 20% and increased by as much as 30%, relative to that on level ground. This manipulation is typical for tillage in complex landscapes and was presumed largely responsible for the variability in the results. The manipulation of tillage depth and speed are affected by the tractor-implement match and the responsiveness of the tillage operator.     

Soil displacement and tillage erosion during secondary tillage operations: the case of rotary harrow and seeding equipment

This study reports the results of a series of experiments that were set up on agricultural land in central Belgium to investigate soil translocation and erosivity resulting from a secondary tillage operation using an implement sequence of a rotary harrow and seeder. Aluminium cubes were used as tracers of soil movement. Results show that soil displacement resulting from tillage with such an implement sequence is far from insignificant. This is mainly related to the relatively shallow tillage depth as well as to the loose initial soil condition of such secondary tillage operations. The calculated value for the tillage transport coefficient k (123 kg m⁻¹ per tillage operation) is comparable with k-values from implements that are considered to be more erosive, like mouldboard and chisel implements. In conclusion, this study shows that tillage erosion not only results from relatively aggressive tillage operations such as mouldboard and chisel passes, but that secondary operations contribute significantly to soil displacement and tillage erosion.     

Assessment of tillage translocation and tillage erosion by hoeing on the steep land in hilly areas of Sichuan, China

Most of the tillage erosion studies have focused on the effect of tractor-plough tillage on soil translocation and soil loss. Only recently, have a few studies contributed to the understanding of tillage erosion by manual tillage. Furthermore, little is known about the impact of tillage erosion in hilly areas of the humid sub-tropics. This study on tillage erosion by hoeing was conducted on a purple soil (Regosols) of the steep land, in Jianyang County, Sichuan Province, southwestern China (30°24′N and 104°35′E) using the physical tracer method.

The effects of hoeing tillage on soil translocation on hillslopes are quite evident. The tillage transport coefficients were 26–38 kg m⁻¹ per tillage pass and 121–175 kg m⁻¹ per tillage pass respectively for k₃- and k₄-values. Given that there was a typical downslope parcel length of 15 m and two times of tillage per year in this area, the tillage erosion rates on the 4–43% hillslopes reached 48–151 Mg ha⁻¹ per year. The downslope soil translocation is closely related to slope gradient. Lateral soil translocation by such tillage is also obvious though it is lower than downslope soil translocation. Strong downslope translocation accounts for thin soil layers and the exposure of parent materials/rocks at the ridge tops and on convexities in the hilly areas. Deterioration in soil quality and therefore reduction in plant productivity due to tillage-induced erosion would be evident at the ridge tops and convex shoulders.     

Residue cover in wheat systems following dry pea and lentil in the Palouse region of Idaho

Crop management practices are needed that increase crop residue groundcover and reduce soil erosion after winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) planting in the Palouse region of northern Idaho and eastern Washington. Trials were conducted in 1997 and 1998 at the University of Idaho Kambitsch Research Farm near Genesee, Idaho, using farm scale equipment to evaluate dry pea (Pisum sativum L. subsp. sativum) and lentil (Lens culinaris Medik) residue production and groundcover across cultivars and tillage intensity. After harvest, legume plot areas were prepared for winter wheat seeding using four main plot tillage systems designed to give progressive levels of tillage intensity: no-till (NT), Ripper–Shooter™ (RS), RS plus one cultivation, and RS plus two cultivations. In 1997, the two dry pea cultivars produced significantly greater residue than the lentil cultivars. In 1998, ‘Pro 2100’ dry pea had significantly higher residue production than ‘Columbian’ pea and ‘Crimson’ lentil cultivars. In 1997, initial residue cover was highest with NT, averaging 74% groundcover across legume cultivars. After winter wheat seeding, residue cover declined for all tillage treatments, but was still highest at 40% residue cover under NT. In 1998, residue cover was lower for all tillage treatments across all cultivars than in 1997, but NT still had the highest initial residue cover. Wheat yield was not affected by tillage or previous crop treatments in either year. This study showed that NT and reduced tillage systems can maintain previous crop residue on the surface for soil conservation and subsequent crop yields.     

Modelling tillage translocation using step, linear-plateau and exponential functions

The distance over which soil is displaced and mixed during tillage has important implications for the understanding the dynamics of soil variability within complex soil-landscapes. In two preceding studies of tillage translocation, tillage was observed to displace soil over a length of approximately 1 m following single passes of four tillage implements (chisel plough, mouldboard plough, tandem disc and field cultivator), and over a length of approximately 2 m per sequence of conventional tillage (one pass of mouldboard plough, two passes of tandem disc and one pass of field cultivator). Using data from these studies step, linear-plateau and exponential functions were assessed for their ability to estimate the magnitude of translocation and the redistribution pattern of soil within the till-layer, and to predict the redistribution pattern of soil within the till-layer. On average, step, linear-plateau and exponential models estimated 100.0%, 100.2% and 102.5% of the magnitude of translocation and 76%, 88% and 93% of the soil redistribution pattern, respectively. Based on these results, it was concluded that linear-plateau and exponential functions are suitable models of tillage translocation. The exponential model was superior to the step and linear-plateau models, and an improvement over the existing diffusion model.     

Modelling tillage erosion in the topographically complex landscapes of southwestern Ontario, Canada

A tillage erosion model was developed for southwestern Ontario based on the relationship between tillage translocation and slope gradient and slope curvature. Two studies of tillage translocation and tillage erosion were used to calibrate this model, one a comparison of upslope and downslope tillage translocation on shoulder slopes, the other an examination of tillage translocation throughout topographically complex landscapes. Two field sites were used for validation of the model. For both sites, past tillage practices were known and past soil erosion was determined using ¹³⁷Cs as an indicator of soil redistribution. The model accurately predicted the pattern of soil redistribution that had occurred within the two field sites. Severe soil loss was observed and predicted on convex landscape positions and soil accumulation was observed and predicted on concave landscape positions. The model accounted for almost all of the soil lost from the convex upper slope positions where tillage erosion was expected to be the dominant erosion process. There was considerable soil loss and accumulation elsewhere in the landscapes which could not be accounted for by the model and was presumed to be primarily the result of water erosion. It was concluded that tillage erosion must be incorporated into soil erosion modelling for the purposes of soil conservation.     

Fly-ash distribution to assess erosion and deposition in an Illinois landscape

Fly ash, the particulate matter resulting from high temperature combustion of coal, was historically dispersed into the atmosphere and settled as fly-ash spheres on the surface soil from a variety of boilers, including those of steam locomotives and steam-powered farm machinery. In Central Illinois, fly ash provides a time marker extending back to 1850s, coinciding with the development of railroads and cultivation. Two railroads, the primary sources of fly ash, were constructed just south of the Cahokia study site in 1852 and 1854. The objectives of this study were to determine: (1) the distribution, depth of occurrence and the total amount of fly ash present in soil profiles on stable, cultivated and uncultivated summit sites with little or no soil erosion; (2) the effects of elevation, aspect, slope gradient, landscape position, distance from source, past vegetation and time on the amount and depth of fly ash; (3) the effects of erosion on sloping sideslopes; and (4) the amount of deposition of fly-ash rich sediment on footslopes and toeslopes. Total fly-ash content of soil was similar for stable, cultivated and uncultivated summits. Two mound sideslopes maintained a high amount of fly ash because of a lack of cultivation and erosion for the past 80 or more years. Erosion reduced the depth of occurrence and the amount of fly ash present on cultivated sideslopes. It appeared that fly-ash content was initially deposited uniformly within the local landscape even though there were slight variations in the aspect, elevation, slope gradient, and distance from the source. The erosion phases of the soils on all landscape positions were determined based on the amount of fly ash remaining in soil surface layers. Accelerated erosion of cultivated sideslopes resulted in the deposition of fly-ash rich sediment on the adjacent footslopes or toeslopes. The proposed fly-ash method provides a tool to assess the extent of soil translocation from a cultivated landscape and subsequent deposition.     

Adaptation of soil quality indices and application to three tillage systems in southern Illinois

Sustainability of agricultural management systems has become an issue of wide public concern and international debate. One result is that soil quality assessment has been suggested as a tool for evaluating sustainability of soil and crop management practices. Our objective was to adapt a soil quality index to assess the effects of three long-term tillage systems on sloping Grantsburg silt loam soil. Soil quality was evaluated using a framework that included three soil functions: (1) resist erosion (water relations), (2) provide plant nutrients (nutrient relations), and (3) provide a favorable root environment (rooting relations). A score for each of these functions was computed using measurements (indicators) that were normalized with one of the three (more is better, optimum, or worse) scoring functions. Six different indices were developed from a basic framework. Modifications included changing the weighting factors, threshold limits, or type of scoring function applied to indicators, and the addition of air-filled and water storage porosity to the nutrient and rooting relations functions. Changing threshold limits and the type of scoring function used for surface residue improved the correlation between water relations and soil loss. The addition of porosity indicators increased the sensitivity of nutrient and rooting relations functions to yield and cone index, respectively, and resulted in a better correlation between porosity indicators and plant population. Computing soil quality indices helped to combine different soil properties and processes into a simple tool that explained changes in complex soil properties in response to different tillage practices. This supports previous studies suggesting that computing soil quality indices and functions could be useful for selecting management practices to maintain or improve soil quality. Our results demonstrated that adjusting threshold limits for local conditions can make the function ratings more or less sensitive to the management practices being evaluated.     

农作物叶片对大气沉降重金属的吸收转运和积累机制

近年来,农产品的重金属超标问题已经引起了公众的广泛关注,也是国内外学者研究的热点.要实现农产品重金属污染的有效防控,首先需要解决的就是重金属来源问题.目前已有的研究大多集中在根系对土壤中重金属的吸收机制研究,且已基本探明作物根系对重金属的吸收转运机制,包括根际离子的活化,根细胞的吸附和扩散、跨膜运输,根皮层细胞的横向运...     

Changes in the soils of solonetzic associations in 30 years after their reclamation with the use of moldboard plowing,deep tillage with a three-tier plow,and deep rotary tillage

Changes in the properties of solonetzic soil associations (chestnut solonetzic soils and chestnut solonetzes) in the dry steppe after their reclamation have been studied for 30 years. The reclamation included the deep three-tier plowing and the approach of rotary tillage. A single rotary tillage operation resulted in the formation of fine aggregates of equal sizes in the plow layer; any morphological features of the restoration of solonetzic pedogenesis are absent. The atmospheric moisture easily penetrates into the soil, and soluble salts are leached off to a great depth. In 30 years since the soil amelioration with the use of a PMS-70 rotary tiller, the humus content has increased up to 3.3% in the upper 20-cm-thick layer and up to 2.4% in the layer of 20–40 cm. The content of adsorbed Na⁺ in the 20- to 30-cm-thick layer has decreased to 10.6% of the cation exchange capacity (in comparison with 19.8% in the nonreclaimed soil). The spatial heterogeneity of the soil cover has decreased in comparison with that prior to the reclamation. During the entire observation period, crop yields gained from the fields reclaimed with the use of the rotary tiller have been by 25–60% higher in comparison with those on the fields with traditional treatments.     

Decomposition of straw in relation to tillage,moisture, and arthropod abundance in a semi-arid tropical Alfisol

The decomposition of rice straw was studied in relation to straw moisture and the abundance of soil arthropods, such as Acarina, Collembola, and miscellaneous groups dominated by termites [Odontotermes obesus (Rambur) and Microtermes obesi Holmgren], across tillage treatments (no tillage, shallow tillage, and deep tillage) in Alfisols of the semi-arid tropics in India from August 1989 to July 1990. In the straw, across the treatments, Acarina were dominant (>70% of the total arthropods), and Collembola were a minor component. O. obesus and M. obesi foraged straw together under the cover of an earthern sheet. A larger number of arthropods was recorded during the rainy season, but they were either negligible or absent during the dry season. The abundance of arthropods and mass loss of straw was greater in coarse-mesh bags than in the fine-mesh bags. Their abundance was significantly affected by tillage treatments and season (P<0.01). In the beginning, it was significantly greater in the no-tillage and shallow-tillage than in the deep-tillage treatment. The mass loss was 46% of the initial mass during the first 60 days, and more than 90% after 330 days of decomposition. Tillage had a significant effect on mass loss, particularly after 330 days, and the no tillage treatment led to a greater mass loss. Multiple linear regression analysis revealed that the moisture content of the straw and the abundance of arthropods had significantly affected the mass loss in both fine-and coarse-mesh bags across the tillage managements.Visiting Scientist (under the Rockefeller Foundation Environmental Research Fellowship in International Agriculture) in Resource Management Program at ICRISAT, India     

Tillage translocation and tillage erosivity by planting, hilling and harvesting operations common to potato production in Atlantic Canada

In Canada, the negative impacts of tillage erosion is a growing concern, especially in regions where highly erosive cropping and tillage systems are practiced on highly erodible, topographically complex landscapes. To date, tillage erosion studies have focused primarily on the movement of soil by primary and secondary tillage operations. However, in potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) production there is often considerable soil disturbance that occurs during “tertiary” field operations conducted during the growing season. Therefore, the objective of this project was to generate tillage translocation and erosivity values for implements common to planting, hilling and harvesting operations within intensive potato production systems in Atlantic Canada. Our results show that tertiary tillage operations result in significant soil displacement and can be equally as erosive as primary and secondary tillage operations. Both the planting, cultivating and hilling (PCH) sequence and the harvester moved soil extremely large distances (up to 23.6 and 6.0 m, respectively). In fact, the mean translocated distance of the tilled layer (T_L) and the mass of translocated soil (T_M) of the PCH sequence (0.42 m and 115.9 kg m⁻¹, respectively) and the harvester (0.55 m and 71.7 kg m⁻¹, respectively) are larger than those reported previously for primary and secondary tillage operations in New Brunswick. In addition, the net downslope movement of soil for the PCH sequence and the harvester was approximately 36 and 26 kg m⁻¹, respectively, suggesting that both tertiary tillage operations have the potential to be erosive. A direct relationship was observed between both T_L and T_M and slope gradient for the PCH sequence, but similar relationships were not found for the harvester, even though the harvester moved approximately 30 % more soil downslope than upslope. Linear regression functions were generally improved after including slope curvature in the model, but these results were not always significant. Soil movement by the PCH sequence and harvester were also largely influenced by tillage speed and tillage depth, and future research is needed under controlled conditions to determine whether it is changing topography or the variability in tillage speed and depth across the landscape in response to changing topography that is driving tillage erosion within mechanized agricultural systems. It is clear that tertiary tillage operations must be considered when developing best management practices to improve soil conservation strategies for potato production systems in Canada and worldwide.     

Effects of tillage method on soil physical properties, infiltration and yield in an olive orchard

The long-term effects of two different tillage systems, conventional (CT) and no tillage (NT), were studied in an olive orchard in Santaella (Southern Spain) for 15 years. In both tillage systems, two distinct zones developed in the orchard in relation to soil physical properties; one underneath the tree canopy, and the other in the rows between trees. Surface soil organic matter content, bulk density, cone index, macroscopic capillary length and hydraulic conductivity showed significant differences between tillage systems and positions. After 15 years, the NT treatment achieved greater bulk density and cone index values than CT. This compaction reduced the infiltration rate of NT soil with respect to CT, particularly in the rows between trees. Despite that reduction, the NT soil retained a moderate infiltration potential. That may be explained by the high infiltration rates and macroporosity of the zone beneath the tree, the temporary effects of tillage on infiltration and probably by the self-repair of soil structure in the Vertisol studied. Yield was not affected by tillage except in one year with very low precipitation, where NT significantly yielded more than CT. The reduction in infiltration in NT must have been compensated by unknown factors that improve the tree water supply in drought years.     

Effect of tillage and mode of straw mulch application on soil erosion in the submontaneous tract of Punjab, India

The submontaneous tract of Punjab comprising 10% of the state, is prone to soil erosion by water. Soils of the area are coarse in texture, low in organic matter and poor in fertility. High intensity rains during the monsoon season result in fertile topsoil removal. There is an urgent need to control soil erosion in this region so as to improve soil productivity. A field study was conducted to estimate the effect of tillage and different modes of mulch application on soil erosion losses. Treatments comprised two levels of tillage, viz. minimum (T_m) and conventional (T_c) in the main plots and five modes of straw mulch application, viz. mulch spread over whole plot (M_w), mulch spread on lower one-third of plot (M_1/3), mulch applied in strips (M_s), vertical mulching (M_v) and unmulched control (M_o), in subplots in a replicated split plot design. Rate of mulch application was 6 t ha⁻¹ in all modes. Compared with M_o, M_w reduced runoff by 33%. Runoff and soil loss were 5 and 40% higher under T_c than under T_m. Though other modes of straw mulch application (M_1/3, M_s and M_v) controlled soil loss better than M_o, their effectiveness was less than M_w. T_m was more effective in conserving soil moisture than T_c. Compared with M_o, M_w had 3–7% higher soil moisture content in the 0–30 cm soil depth under T_m. Minimum soil temperature of the surface layer was 1.4–2.4 °C lower under M_w than under M_o. Straw mulching reduced maximum soil temperature and helped in conserving soil moisture. Minimum tillage coupled with M_w was highly effective in reducing soil erosion losses, decreasing soil temperature and increasing moisture content by providing maximum surface cover.     

Vulnerability of Bavarian silty loam soil to compaction under heavy wheel traffic: impacts of tillage method and soil water content

Soil compaction caused by traffic of heavy vehicles and machinery has become a problem of world-wide concern. The aims of this study were to evaluate and compare the changes in bulk density, soil strength, porosity, saturated hydraulic conductivity and air permeability during sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.) harvesting on a typical Bavarian soil (Regosol) as well as to assess the most appropriate variable factors that fit with the effective controlling of subsequent compaction. The field experiments, measurements and laboratory testing were carried out in Freising, Germany. Two tillage systems (conventional plough tillage and reduced chisel tillage) were used in the experiments. The soil water contents were adjusted to 0.17 g g⁻¹ (w₁), 0.27 g g⁻¹ (w₂) and 0.35 g g⁻¹ (w₃).Taking the increase in bulk density, the decrease in air permeability and reduction of wide coarse pore size porosity (−6 kPa) into account, it seems that CT (ploughing to a depth of 0.25 m followed by two passes of rotary harrow to a depth 0.05 m) of plots were compacted to a depth of at least 0.25 m and at most 0.40 m in high soil water (w₃) conditions. The trends were similar for “CT w₁” (low soil water content) plots. However, it seems that “CT w₁” plots were less affected than “CT w₃” plots with regard to bulk density increases under partial load. In contrast, diminishments of wide coarse pores (−6 kPa) and narrow (tight) coarse pores (−30 kPa) were significantly higher in “CT w₁” plots down to 0.4 m. Among CT plots, the best physical properties were obtained at medium soil water (w₂) content. No significant increase in bulk density and no significant decrease in coarse pore size porosity and total porosity below 0.2 m were observed at medium soil water content. The soil water content seemed to be the most decisive factor.It is likely that, CS (chiselling to a depth of 0.13 m followed by two passes of rotary harrow to a depth 0.05 m) plots were less affected by traffic treatments than CT plots. Considering the proportion of coarse pore size porosity (structural porosity) and total porosity, no compaction effects below 0.3 m were found. Medium soil water content (w₂) provides better soil conditions after traffic with regard to wide coarse pore size porosity (−6 kPa), air permeability (at 6 and 30 kPa water suction), total porosity and bulk density. Proportion of wide coarse pores, air permeability and bulk density seems to be suitable parameters to detect soil compaction under the conditions tested.     

Soil carbon, nitrogen, pH, and earthworm density as influenced by cropping practices in the Inland Pacific Northwest

Farmers within the Inland Pacific Northwest are gradually transitioning to direct seed (DS) practices that reduce soil disturbance and increase surface residue compared to conventional tillage (CT). Despite this transition the impacts of DS practices on soil properties and fauna in commercial fields has been little studied in the region. During the spring and summer of 2002 and 2003 we compared soil organic carbon (SOC), total nitrogen (TN), pH, and earthworm and cocoon densities in CT and DS fields planted to either spring wheat or pea in the Palouse region of northern Idaho. In 2002 mean SOC within the 0–10-cm depth was greater in DS fields (2.05%) than at the same depth in CT fields (1.79%), however SOC within the 30–40-cm depth was lower under DS compared to CT. Mean soil pH within the 0–10-cm depth was 5.35 under DS and 5.61 under CT indicating that pH stratification can occur when tillage is reduced. Tillage effects on SOC, TN, and pH were not found in 2003. Tillage also did not significantly influence earthworm densities, which averaged 39 individuals m⁻² in 2002 and 57 individuals m⁻² in 2003. Correlations were detected in 2003 DS fields between soil properties (SOC and TN) and earthworm and cocoon densities at depths above 30 cm while in 2002 correlations in DS fields occurred with cocoon density, but not with earthworm density. Direct seed management can increase near-surface SOC and TN concentrations compared to CT practices, however, SOC concentrations deeper in the soil appear to remain the same or possibly decrease. Higher SOC and TN near the soil surface, as found in DS fields, appear to promote greater earthworm densities, which may improve long-term soil productivity.     

Influence of soil tillage systems on aggregate stability and the distribution of C and N in different aggregate fractions

Soil aggregation is influenced by the tillage system used, which in turn affects the amount of C and N in the different aggregate fractions. This study assessed the impact of different tillage systems on soil aggregates by measuring the aggregate stability, the organic carbon (C_org) and the total nitrogen (N_tot) contents within different aggregate fractions, and their release of dissolved organic carbon (DOC). Soil samples were collected from the top 0 to 10 cm of a long-term tillage experiment at Fuchsenbigl (Marchfeld, Austria) where conventional tillage (CT), reduced tillage (RT), and minimum tillage (MT) treatments were applied to a Chernozem fine sandy loam. The stable aggregates (1000–2000 μm) were subject to dispersion by the soil aggregate stability (SAS or wet sieving) method after Kemper and Rosenau (1986), and the ultrasonic method of Mayer et al. (2002). Chemical analysis of the soil was obtained for the aggregate fractions 630–1000, 250–630 and 63–250 μm gathered from the ultrasonic method. Using the SAS method, CT and RT had the least amounts of stable aggregates (18.2% and 18.9%, respectively), whereas MT had twice as much stable aggregates (37.6%). Using the ultrasonic method, MT also had the highest amount of water stable aggregates in all three fractions (1.5%, 3.7%, and 35%, respectively), followed by RT (1%, 2.3%, 32.3%), and CT (0.8%, 1.7%, 29.1%). For comparison, a reference soil, EUROSOIL 7 (ES-7) was also analysed (40%, 6.7%, and 12.1%). The highest amounts of C_org and N_tot were measured under MT in all three fractions, with 8.9%, 3.8%, and 1.3% for C_org, and 0.4%, 0.3%, and 0.1% for N_tot. Apart from the fraction 630–1000 μm, the aggregates of RT and CT contained <50% of the C_org and N_tot values of MT. The C/N ratio was least favourable for CT (42.6) in the aggregate fraction 630–1000 μm. The DOC release from stable aggregates after 10 min of ultrasonic dispersion was highest from MT soil (86.7 mg l⁻¹). The values for RT and CT were 21% and 25% below this value. The results demonstrate that tillage type influences both aggregate stability and aggregate chemical composition. This research confirms that CT interferes more with the natural soil properties than RT and MT. Furthermore, MT has the highest potential to sequester C and N in this agriculturally used soil.