Evaluation of water schemes for peanut,using CSM-CROPGRO-Peanut model

Drought stress is an important factor limiting the yield potential of peanut. In order to determine the effect of different irrigation scenarios on peanut production, field experiments were conducted in 2011 and 2012 growing seasons using factorial design with three replicates. On the other hand, the crop simulation models can be useful to predict crop yields and to investigate the impact of drought stress on plant growth and development. In this study, the Cropping System Model–Crop Growth (CSM-CROPGRO)-Peanut model was employed for the simulation of seed yield, pod yield, biomass, soil water balance components and water productivity for peanut in Astaneh-Ashrafiyeh, Iran. Results showed that the model was able to reasonably simulate seed yield, pod yield and final biomass for different irrigation scenarios (RMSEn < 20%, R² > 0.8 and d > 0.8). According to the results, irrigation depth and interval were important factors affecting yield and biomass. In general, model error increased as the amount of water applied decreased. The least amount of water applied (40 mm) resulted in yield reductions by 76%, 70% and 67% of the greatest amount of water applied (480 mm) for seed yield, pod yield and final biomass, respectively. For each irrigation interval, larger irrigation depth led to lower water productivity (WP) of irrigation (WP_I), but higher WP based on evapotranspiration (WP_ET) and transpiration (WP_T).The average amounts of WP_I, WP_ET, WP_T based on seed yield were 1.2, 0.63 and 1.01 kg m^?3, respectively.     

Effects of Irrigation Water Salinity and Leaching Fraction on Yield and Evapotranspiration in Spring Wheat

To determine the effects of irrigation water salinity and leaching fraction on crop evapotranspiration (ETc), grain yield, straw yield, shoot sodium (Na), and chloride (Cl) concentrations of spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivar ‘Onfarom 9,’ a pot experiment was conducted using saline soil with electrical conductivity of soil paste extract (ECe) of 13.2 dS m^?1. A factorial experiment with a completely randomized design replicated seven times was used with three levels of saline irrigation water (4, 9, and 12 dS m^?1) and four leaching levels (0, 17, 29, and 37%) included as the factors. The results showed that ETc significantly decreased as a result of an increase in irrigation water salinity (ECi) and decrease in leaching level. Crop evapotranspiration deficit and decreasing irrigation and drainage water effectively resulted in grain and straw yield reduction. Increase in ECi increased accumulation of Cl and Na in crop shoot, but application of leaching decreased this accumulation.     

Response of red pepper to deficit irrigation and nitrogen fertigation

The main objective of this investigation was to evaluate the response of red pepper grown in a subhumid climate to different irrigation and nitrogen levels. Open-field trials were conducted in the Marmara Region, Turkey. Plants were subjected to three water levels [full irrigation (FI) = 100% crop evapotranspiration (ETc) and two deficit irrigations (DIs)= 66 and 33% ETc restoration] and four levels of N (0, 80, 160, and 240 kg N ha^?1) during the 2012, 2013, and 2014 growing seasons. A split-plot experimental design was used. The highest values of biomass and marketable yield (MY) were observed under FI. DI significantly increased the fruit soluble solids content. The biomass yield, MY, and fruit weight significantly improved with increasing nitrogen levels. The 240 kg N ha^?1 treatment under FI provided the maximum net income. Increasing N supply under DI conditions enhanced the water-use efficiency based on both biomass yield and MY. These results indicate that with respect to the yield, the net income, and the water productivity of red pepper, the FI with a nitrogen supply of 160–240 kg ha^?1 is recommended for drip irrigated and N-fertigated red pepper under subhumid climate conditions.     

Effects of Nitrogen and Zeolite on Rice Grain Yield,Water and Nitrogen Use,and Soil Total Nitrogen in Coastal Region of Northeast China

Pot experiment were conducted from 2013 to 2014 to provide solutions for poor water–nitrogen (N) use efficiency with zeolite (Z) in near-surface soil. This article aims to study the influences of different levels of Z (Z1, Z2, Z3, 0, 7500, and 15,000 kg hm^?2) and N (N1, N2, N3, 0, 78.75, and 157.5 kg hm^?2) on rice grain yield, soil total N (STN), water productivity (WP), and N recovery efficiency (NRE). Results showed that higher dry matter weight, grain yield, water consumption, N accumulation, and WP were obtained with increasing N rates. There were no significant influences on dry matter weight of stem and leaf, water consumption, and WP with the application of Z. However, Z input could obtain a higher spike and root weight, grain yield, 1000-grain weight, N accumulation, STN, and NRE. Z might alleviate the water used in jointing-booting stage, heading-flowering stage, and milky ripen stage. Overuse of Z and N led to a decrease in NRE. N3Z2 increased rice grain yield by 10.4%, WP by 7.3%, and NRE by 63% compared with conventional fertilization (N3Z1). The way of N3Z2 is recommended to improve rice yield, WP, NRE, and STN comprehensively in coastal region of Northeast China.     

Evaluation of Water–Nitrogen Schemes for Rice in Iran,Using ORYZA2000 Model

The model ORYZA2000 simulates the growth and development of rice under conditions of potential production and water and nitrogen (N) limitations. Crop simulation models could provide an alternative, less time-consuming, and inexpensive means of determining the optimum crop N and irrigation requirements under varied irrigation and nitrogen conditions. Water productivity (WP) is a concept of partial productivity and denotes the amount or value of product over volume or value of water used. For the evaluated ORYZA2000 model in Iran, a study was carried out in a randomized complete block design between 2005 and 2007, with three replications at the Rice Research Institute of Iran, Rasht. Irrigation management (three regimes) was the main plot and N application (four levels) was the subplot. In this study, simulation modeling was used to quantify water productivity and water balance components of water and nitrogen interactions in rice. Evaluation simulated and measured total aboveground biomass and yield, by adjusted coefficient of correlation, T test of means, and absolute and normalized root mean square errors (RMSE). Results showed that with normalized root mean square errors (RMSE_n) of 5–28%, ORYZA2000 satisfactorily simulated crop biomass and yield that strongly varied among irrigation and nitrogen fertilizer conditions. Yield was simulated with an RMSE of 237–443 kg ha^?1 and a normalized RMSE of 5–11%. Results showed that the significant (28–56%) share of evaporation into evapotranspiration, using the actual yield (measured) and simulated water balance (ORYZA2000), the calculated average WP_ET was significantly lower than the average WP_T: 37%. The average WP_I, WP_I+R, WP_ET, WP_T, and WP_ETQ were 1.4, 1.07, 1.07, 1.57, and 0.82 kg m^?3. Results also showed that irrigation with 8-day intervals and 60 kg N ha^?1, nitrogen level was the optimum irrigation regime and nitrogen level.     

Performance Assessment of Chlorophyll Meter to Determine When to Irrigate Wheat under Different Soil Moisture Deficit Conditions: An Initial Study

ABSTRACT

Proper irrigation timing can minimize the negative impacts that reduce crop yields. Therefore, in an initial pot experimental study, we assessed the SPAD (Soil–Plant Analysis Development)-chlorophyll meter as a tool to determine proper irrigation timing of wheat under different soil water deficit conditions in a controlled-environment greenhouse. The treatments were controlled irrigation at 100% (T₁), 70% (T₂), 50% (T₃) and 30% (T₄) of soil water content at field capacity; and the growth stages were development, mid-season and late-season. SPAD readings were measured pre-irrigation events. The results indicated that the T₃ and T₂ achieved maximum grain yield per accumulated crop evapotranspiration, i.e. water productivity (0.82 and 0.76 kg m^?3), and were at par with T₁. Moreover, the SPAD readings had a high Pearson’s correlation coefficient with crop evapotranspiration (r = 0.95; P ≤ 0.001) and wheat grain yield (r = 0.90; P ≤ 0.001), indicating that SPAD reading could be used to reliably estimate when to irrigate wheat. Therefore, T₃ and T₂ SPAD readings were averaged to estimate a target limit at which irrigation should be applied. Accordingly, the target limit was defined as >44.76 for the development stage, >50.72 for the mid-season stage, and >37.64 for the late-season stage; readings below this target limit indicate that it is time to irrigate.     

TREATED EFFLUENT AND SALINE WATER IRRIGATION INFLUENCES SOIL PROPERTIES,YIELD, WATER PRODUCTIVITY AND SODIUM CONTENT OF SNOW PEAS AND CELERY

To determine the effects of irrigation water quality, plants were irrigated with normal potable water [0.25 dS m^?1 electrical conductivity (EC), 25 mg L^?1 sodium (Na), 55 mg L^?1 chloride (Cl)], treated effluent (0.94 dS m^?1 EC, 122 mg L^?1 Na, 143 mg L^?1 Cl) and saline water with low salinity (1.24 dS m^?1 EC, 144 mg L^?1 Na and 358 mg L^?1 Cl) and high salinity (2.19 dS m^?1 EC, 264 mg L ^?1Na and 662 mg L^?1 Cl) for snow peas, and high salinity (3.07 dS m^?1 EC, 383 mg L^?1 Na and 965 mg L^?1 Cl) and very high salinity (5.83 dS m^?1 EC, 741 mg L^?1 Na and 1876 mg L^?1 Cl) for celery. The greater salts build up in the soil and ion toxicity (Cl and Na) with saline water irrigation contributed to significantly greater reduction in root and shoot biomass, water use, yield and water productivity (yield kg kL^?1 of water used) of snow peas and celery compared with treated effluent and potable water irrigation. There was 8%, 56% and 74% reduction in celery yield respectively with treated effluent, high salinity and very high salinity saline water irrigation compared with potable water irrigation. The Na concentration in snow peas shoots increased by 54%, 234% and 501% with treated effluent, low and high salinity saline water irrigation. Similarly, the increases in Na concentration in celery shoots were 19%, 35% and 82%. The treated effluent irrigation also resulted in a significant increase in soil EC, nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) content compared with potable water irrigation. The heavy metals besides salts build up appears to have contributed to yield reductions with treated effluent irrigation. The study reveals strong implications for the use of saline water and treated effluent for irrigation of snow peas and celery. The salt build up within the root zone and soil environment would be critical in the long-run with the use of saline water and treated effluent for irrigation of crops. To minimize the salinity level in rhizosphere, an alternate irrigation of potable water with treated effluent or low salinity level water may be better option.     

Effect of soil water management and different sowing dates on maize yield and water use efficiency under drip irrigation system

A 2-year field experiment (2012–2013) was conducted to evaluate the yield and water use efficiency (WUE) response of maize (Zea mays L.) to different soil water managements at different sowing dates. The experiment included three sowing dates (22 June, 6 July and 21 July) and four irrigation regimes based on maximum allowable depletion (MAD) of the total available soil water (TAW). The irrigation treatments were marked by I₁ to I₃ as 40%, 60% and 80% MAD of TAW, respectively, and with no irrigation. The results showed that grain yield reduced when planting was delayed in both years, ranging from 6105 to 4577 kg ha^?1 in 2012 and from 7079 to 5380 kg ha^?1 in 2013. However, WUE increased when planting was delayed from 22 June until 21 July. Also the highest grain yield was observed in the first irrigation treatment (MAD = 40%) in both years, and the highest WUE was obtained in the second irrigation treatment (MAD = 60%) with 1.64 and 1.61 (kg m^?3) in 2012 and 2013, respectively. These findings suggest that delay in planting date and the use of MAD = 60% treatment in Mediterranean-type region such as Golestan, Iran, can be useful in saving water that is highly important in such regions.     

Water management for maize grown in sandy soil under climate change conditions

To reduce climate change risks on maize yield grown in sandy soil, agricultural management practices must be studied. The aim of the study was to determine whether improved water management practices could reduce the vulnerability of maize to drought stress by climate change. Eight fertigation treatments in addition to farmer irrigation (control treatment) were tested. Two climate change scenarios were incorporated in the CropSyst model to assess maize yield responses to variable fertigation regimes under different climate change conditions. The results showed that under current climate, the highest and lowest water productivity (WP) values were obtained when irrigation was applied using 0.8 and 0.6 potential crop evapotranspiration (ETc) with fertigation application in 80% and 60% of application time, respectively. The highest WP under the tested climate change scenarios was obtained when irrigation was applied using 1.2 and 0.8 of ETc with fertigation application in 80% of application time, respectively, in 2009 and 2010 growing seasons. Irrigating maize grown in sandy soil under drip irrigation with an amount of either 1.2 or 0.8 of ETc with fertigation application in 80% of application time are recommended to enhance the WP and reduce maize’s damage caused by extreme climate change.     

Effects of water-saving irrigation and groundwater depth on direct seeding rice growth,yield, and water use in a semi-arid region

In Iran, rice is grown in areas where the groundwater depth (GD) is low. Therefore, water-saving irrigation (WSI) can be used instead of continuous flood irrigation (CFI) in order to use the groundwater. The objectives of this study were to investigate the interaction effects of irrigation regimes and GDs on growth and yield of rice and groundwater contribution (GC) to crop evapotranspiration (ET) in cylindrical greenhouse lysimeters. Irrigation regimes were CFI and intermittent flood irrigation (IFI) with 4- and 8-day intervals (IFI-4 and IFI-8, respectively), and GDs were 0.3, 0.45, and 0.60 m. Results indicated that in a climate condition similar to experimental environment in greenhouse, using IFI-4 at a GD of 0.3 m produced grain yield and straw and root dry matter (DM) similar to those obtained when using CFI, with 53% reduction in irrigation water use. However, straw and root DM increased in CFI with increasing soil column length. Maximum GC/ET (41%) was observed when using IFI-4 at a GD of 0.3 m. A multiple regression equation was presented to estimate GC/ET as a function of GD and soil moisture deficit (SMD). This equation indicates that at a given GD with extension of irrigation intervals and increased SMD GC/ET reached a maximum value followed by a decrease afterwards. Maximum values of GC/ET were obtained at SMD values of 0.47, 0.40, and 0.33 at GDs of 0.3, 0.45, and 0.6 m, respectively.     

Sources,Rates and Time of Nitrogen Application on Maize Crops under No-Tillage System

Quantitatively, nitrogen (N) is the foremost nutrient for maize crops (Zea mays L.), but the N source to increase the grain productivity still needs more investigation. Thus, the aim of this experiment was to study sources, rates and time of N application on the crop yield and agronomic characteristics of the maize under no-tillage system. The experiment was carried out during two growing seasons on an Oxisol under the factorial 5 × 3 × 3 scheme with five N rates (0, 50, 100, 150, and 200 kg ha^?1) and three sources (ammonium-sulfate-nitrate as inhibitor of the nitrification (ASN+I), ammonium sulfate (AS) and urea); we applied them two times with four replicates: first time at the sowing or later under side dressing when the plants had the six leaves stage. In the first year, the sources of N had no influence on the number of grain line /ear (NGLE), grain number/line (GNL), total number of grain/ear (TNFE), biomass of 100 grain, plant height (PH), height of the first ear insertion (AFEI) and stalk diameter, in contrast with the foliar N content and the crop yield. Early fertilization with N at the sowing time can afford applications as well as the total side dressing. The increase of the rates had positive influence on the N foliar content, plant height and 100 grains biomass. The highest productivities were found with rates above the threshold of 150 kg ha^?1, no matter the sources and the fertilization time.     

Effect of nitrogen rates on drip irrigated maize grown under deficit irrigation

Nitrogen fertilization management under water limited conditions needs to be refined to save environmental ecosystems and increase economic returns. Two-year field studies in a split-plot design were conducted to investigate the response of maize to different nitrogen rates (N₁₀₀ = 100, N₁₃₀ = 130, and N₁₆₀ = 160?kg N ha^?1) under two irrigation levels (100 or 75% of water requirements). Under deficit irrigation, water and N were used more efficiently than normal water supply. N-fertilization of drip irrigated maize grown under deficit irrigation with N₁₆₀ increased the uptake of N, P and K by 35, 29 and 70% compared with N_100. Fertilization of maize grown under deficit irrigation with N₁₆₀ increased the grain, straw and biological yield and water use efficiency by 50, 14, 22 and 33% compared with N₁₀₀. Based on the obtained results, 160?kg of N ha^?1 is the optimum rate of N for maize irrigated by 75% of water requirements.     

Agronomic evaluation of rice cultivation systems for water and grain productivity

Field experiments were conducted during summer (March–July) and kharif (June–September), 2008 at the wetland farm, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India, to study the performance of different rice cultivation methods on productivity and water usage using the hybrid CORH-3 as a test crop. Treatments consisted of different rice cultivation methods, namely, transplanted rice (conventional), direct sown rice (wet seeded), alternate wetting and drying method (AWD), system of rice intensification (SRI) and aerobic rice cultivation. Results revealed that maximum number of tillers m^?2, higher shoot and root length at maturity were recorded under SRI followed by transplanted rice, while aerobic rice produced lower growth parameters in both the seasons. Chlorophyll content at flowering was higher under SRI in two seasons studied (42.74 and 39.48 SPAD value, respectively) and transplanted rice compared to aerobic rice and AWD. In both summer and kharif seasons, SRI produced higher grain yield (6014 and 6682 kg ha^?1), followed by transplanted rice (5732 and 6262 kg ha^?1), while the lowest grain yield (3582 and 3933 kg ha^?1) was recorded under aerobic rice cultivation. Under SRI, 5 and 6.7% increase in grain yield and 12.6 and 14.8% water saving were noticed compared to transplanted rice, respectively, during summer and kharif seasons. In respect to water productivity, the SRI method of rice cultivation registered the highest water productivity (0.43and 0.47 kg m^?3), followed by AWD and aerobic rice cultivation. The conventional rice cultivation and direct sown rice produced lower grain yield per unit quantity of water used.     

秸秆覆盖条件下夏玉米田蒸散、水分利用效率和作物系数研究

Maize （Zea mays L.）, a staple crop grown from June to September during the rainy season on the North China Plain, is usually inter-planted in winter wheat （Triticum aestivum L.） fields about one week before harvesting of the winter wheat. In order to improve irrigation efficiency in this region of serious water shortage, field studies in 1999 and 2001, two dry seasons with less than average seasonal rainfall, were conducted with up to five irrigation applications to determine evapotranspiration, calculate the crop coefficient, and optimize the irrigation schedule with maize under mulch, as well as to establish the effects of irrigation timing and the number of applications on grain yield and water use efficiency （WUE） of maize. Results showed that with grain production at about 8 000 kg ha^-1 the total evapotranspiration and WUE of irrigated maize under mulch were about 380-400 mm and 2.0-2.2 kg m^-3, respectively. Also in 2001 WUE of maize with mulch for the treatment with three irrigations was 11.8% better than that without mulch. In the 1999 and 2001 seasons, maize yield significantly improved （P = 0.05） with four irrigation applications, however, further increases were not significant. At the same time there were no significant differences for WUE with two to four irrigation applications. In the 2001 season mulch lead to a decrease of 50 mm in the total soil evaporation, and the maize crop coefficient under mulch varied between 0.3-1.3 with a seasonal average of 1.0.     

施氮与灌水对夏玉米产量和水氮利用的影响

通过田间裂区试验,研究了不同灌水量（900、 1200和1500 m3/hm2）和施氮量（0、 150、 210和270 kg/hm2）对夏玉米生长状况、 产量构成及水、 氮利用效率等的影响。结果表明: 当灌水量超过最低量 900 m3/hm2、 施氮量超过150 kg/hm2时,二者对玉米产量、 产量构成因素（穗粒数、 百粒重及穗粒重）和收获指数（HI）以及各生育期干物质积累量等均没有明显影响; 氮肥农学效率和氮肥偏生产力随氮肥用量的增加呈明显降低趋势; 灌水生产效率和水分利用效率随灌水量的增加也显著降低,二者均表现为900 m3/hm21200 m3/hm21500 m3/hm2。因此,在本试验条件下,以W900N150处理的水、 氮利用效率、 产量及其构成因素等较高,并且对环境造成潜在危害最小,为当地地域气候条件下夏玉米生产中节水减氮的较为适宜的水氮配比。     

Combined effect of deficit irrigation and potassium fertilizer on physiological response,plant water status and yield of soybean in calcareous soil

A 2-year field experiment (2013 and 2014) was conducted in calcareous soil (CaCO₃ 19.2%), on soybean grown under three irrigation regimes 100%, 85% and 70% of crop evapotranspiration combined with three potassium (K₂O) levels (90, 120 and 150 kg ha^?1). The objective was to investigate the complementary properties of potassium fertilizer in improving soybean physiological response under water deficit. Plant water status (relative water content RWC, chlorophyll fluorescence F_v/F₀ and F_v/F_m), had been significantly affected by irrigation or/and potassium application. Potassium improved growth characteristics (i.e. shoot length, number, leaf area and dry weight of leaves) as well as physiochemical attributes (total soluble sugars, free proline and contents of N, P, K, Ca and Na). Yield and yield water use efficiency (Y-WUE) were significantly affected by irrigation and potassium treatments. Results indicated that potassium application of 150 and 120 kg ha^?1 significantly increased seed yield by 29.6% and 13.89%, respectively, compared with 90 kg ha^?1 as average for two seasons. It was concluded that application of higher levels of potassium fertilizer in arid environment improves plant water status as well as growth and yield of soybean under water stress.     

Water Use and Soil Fertility under Rice–Wheat Cropping System in Response to Green Manuring and Zinc Nutrition

ABSTRACT

Soil fertility and water use are two important aspects that influence rice productivity. This study was conducted to evaluate the performance of in-situ (sesbania and rice bean) and ex-situ (subabul) green manuring along with zinc fertilization on water productivity and soil fertility in rice under rice–wheat cropping system at Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India. Sesbania incorporation recorded higher total water productivity (2.20 and 3.24 kg ha^?1 mm^?1), available soil nutrients, organic carbon, alkaline phosphatase activity, microbial biomass carbon and increased soil dehydrogenase activity by 39.6 and 26.8% over subabul and rice bean respectively. Among interaction of green manures and zinc fertilization, subabul × foliar application of chelated zinc-ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid at 20, 40, 60 and 80 days after transplanting recorded highest total water productivity (2.56 and 3.79 kg ha^?1 mm^?1). Foliar application of chelated Zn-EDTA at 20, 40, 60 and 80 days after transplanting recorded significantly higher water productivity than other Zn treatments, however it was statistically similar with foliar application of zinc at active tillering + flowering + grain filling. Sesbania × 5 kg Zn ha^?1 through chelated Zn-EDTA, recorded highest available nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, zinc, manganese, copper and iron than other green manure and Zn fertilization interactions, although it was statistically similar with rice bean × 5 kg Zn ha^?1 through chelated Zn-EDTA as soil application. Sesbania × foliar application of 5 kg Zn ha^?1 through chelated Zn-EDTA as soil application recorded highest soil enzymatic activities and microbial biomass carbon.     

咸水非充分灌溉条件下土壤水盐运动SWAP模型模拟

为了研究咸水非充分灌溉条件下土壤水盐动态变化规律,该文在2013年田间试验的基础上,利用试验观测数据,对SWAP模型进行了率定和验证,并对咸水非充分灌溉条件下土壤剖面水分和盐分通量变化过程进行了模拟和分析。研究结果表明:SWAP模型模拟值较好地反映了实测值的变化趋势,经过率定和验证后的SWAP模型能够较好地模拟土壤水盐的动态变化规律以及制种玉米的产量情况。在制种玉米苗期阶段,3种灌水处理40 cm以上土壤剖面的水分通量主要以向上为主;在灌水和降雨阶段,各处理土壤剖面的水分通量主要向下,且灌水量越大的处理,向下的水分通量越大;在土壤蒸发阶段,各处理60 cm以下土壤剖面的水分通量向下,且向下的水分通量逐渐减小。土壤盐分通量模拟结果与土壤水分通量具有类似的规律,60 cm以下土壤剖面的盐分通量主要向下,表明土壤盐分主要向深层土壤运移。研究结果可为该研究区域咸水非充分灌溉制度的制定提供理论依据。     

Nitrogen rate applied affects dry matter translocation and performance attributes of wheat under deficit irrigation

Crop production in arid/semi-arid regions is restricted by soil moisture and nitrogen (N) deficiencies. Consequently, sufficient levels of N and irrigation are important in improving the crop's productivity. Therefore, a 2-year field experiment was conducted to understand influences of watering techniques namely 300, 500 and 700 mm with contrasting N supply (0, 60, 120 and 180 kg ha^?1) on wheat cv. “landrace” productivity, dry matter translocation (DMT) and contribution of pre-anthesis assimilates to the grain (CPAAG, %). Experiments were conducted each year using a split-plot design with three replications at a private farm, North Hamedan Province, Iran. Accordingly, when 500/700 mm water was applied, CPAAG values were higher than those obtained after applying 300 mm water, i.e. 49.99 and 45.45 vs. 40.13%. The highest productivity in terms of grain yield, grain N concentration, nitrogen harvest index, special products analysis division and protein content was achieved in normal deficiencies of irrigation and N. This was further supported by a higher leaf area index, crop growth rate and N uptake of such treatment. Meanwhile, co-application of 120 kg N and 500 mm water significantly improved DMT, water and N use efficiency, and it was the optimal scheme for wheat production.     

Water use efficiency and must quality of irrigated grapevines of north-eastern Portugal

This is an experiment to study the effect of water supply on the quality of the must produced by grapevines, and to determine the water use efficiency (WUE) of different irrigation strategies to give farmers a tool to optimize irrigation, reducing water use with the least negative effect on production. WUE was based on the ratio between a given parameter (yield, different must solubes) and the water used by plant transpiration plus evaporation from soil. The experiment was a completely randomized design with six irrigation treatments (non-irrigated, irrigated from flowering to veraison at rates of 4 and 8 mm day^?1, irrigated from veraison to commercial maturation at rates of 4 and 8 mm day^?1, and irrigated from flowering to commercial maturation at a rate of 8 mm day^?1) in three replications over three seasons (2004–2006). Irrigation significantly increased grapevine yield and, because the plants produced larger berries, there was a dilution of colour, aroma and soluble solids that corresponded to a lower quality of the must. The higher WUE was achieved with no irrigation but yield was very low, albeit with an outstanding quality, that might not be profitable. The best strategy is to balance the water stress of the vines that best combines yield and berry quality and this was achieved by irrigating from flowering to veraison at a rate of ～50% of the potential evapotranspiration. This strategy might conserve water, an increasingly scarce resource that we are pressed to use with the utmost efficiency.