The neural basis of altruistic punishment

Many people voluntarily incur costs to punish violations of social norms. Evolutionary models and empirical evidence indicate that such altruistic punishment has been a decisive force in the evolution of human cooperation. We used H2 15O positron emission tomography to examine the neural basis for altruistic punishment of defectors in an economic exchange. Subjects could punish defection either symbolically or effectively. Symbolic punishment did not reduce the defector's economic payoff, whereas effective punishment did reduce the payoff. We scanned the subjects' brains while they learned about the defector's abuse of trust and determined the punishment. Effective punishment, as compared with symbolic punishment, activated the dorsal striatum, which has been implicated in the processing of rewards that accrue as a result of goal-directed actions. Moreover, subjects with stronger activations in the dorsal striatum were willing to incur greater costs in order to punish. Our findings support the hypothesis that people derive satisfaction from punishing norm violations and that the activation in the dorsal striatum reflects the anticipated satisfaction from punishing defectors.     

The neural basis of economic decision-making in the Ultimatum Game

The nascent field of neuroeconomics seeks to ground economic decision making in the biological substrate of the brain. We used functional magnetic resonance imaging of Ultimatum Game players to investigate neural substrates of cognitive and emotional processes involved in economic decision-making. In this game, two players split a sum of money;one player proposes a division and the other can accept or reject this. We scanned players as they responded to fair and unfair proposals. Unfair offers elicited activity in brain areas related to both emotion (anterior insula) and cognition (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex). Further, significantly heightened activity in anterior insula for rejected unfair offers suggests an important role for emotions in decision-making.     

The neural basis of loss aversion in decision-making under risk

People typically exhibit greater sensitivity to losses than to equivalent gains when making decisions. We investigated neural correlates of loss aversion while individuals decided whether to accept or reject gambles that offered a 50/50 chance of gaining or losing money. A broad set of areas (including midbrain dopaminergic regions and their targets) showed increasing activity as potential gains increased. Potential losses were represented by decreasing activity in several of these same gain-sensitive areas. Finally, individual differences in behavioral loss aversion were predicted by a measure of neural loss aversion in several regions, including the ventral striatum and prefrontal cortex.     

The neural basis for learning of simple motor skills

The vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) is a simple movement that has been used to investigate the neural basis for motor learning in monkeys. The function of the VOR is to stabilize retinal images by generating smooth eye movements that are equal and opposite to each head movement. Learning occurs whenever image motion occurs persistently during head turns; as a result image stability is gradually restored. A hypothesis is proposed in which the output from the cerebellar cortex of the flocculus guides learning; the locus of learning is in the brain stem, in VOR pathways that are under inhibitory control from the flocculus. Other, parallel VOR pathways do not receive inputs from the flocculus and are not subject to learning. Similarities among the VOR and other motor systems suggest some organizing principles that may apply in many forms of motor learning.     

Molecular basis of proton motive force generation: structure of formate dehydrogenase-N

The structure of the membrane protein formate dehydrogenase-N (Fdn-N), a major component of Escherichia coli nitrate respiration, has been determined at 1.6 angstroms. The structure demonstrates 11 redox centers, including molybdopterin-guanine dinucleotides, five [4Fe-4S] clusters, two heme b groups, and a menaquinone analog. These redox centers are aligned in a single chain, which extends almost 90 angstroms through the enzyme. The menaquinone reduction site associated with a possible proton pathway was also characterized. This structure provides critical insights into the proton motive force generation by redox loop, a common mechanism among a wide range of respiratory enzymes.     

Structural basis of biological N2O generation by bacterial nitric oxide reductase

Nitric oxide reductase (NOR) is an iron-containing enzyme that catalyzes the reduction of nitric oxide (NO) to generate a major greenhouse gas, nitrous oxide (N(2)O). Here, we report the crystal structure of NOR from Pseudomonas aeruginosa at 2.7 angstrom resolution. The structure reveals details of the catalytic binuclear center. The non-heme iron (Fe(B)) is coordinated by three His and one Glu ligands, but a His-Tyr covalent linkage common in cytochrome oxidases (COX) is absent. This structural characteristic is crucial for NOR reaction. Although the overall structure of NOR is closely related to COX, neither the D- nor K-proton pathway, which connect the COX active center to the intracellular space, was observed. Protons required for the NOR reaction are probably provided from the extracellular side.     

农业科技专家信息系统的设计及实现

本文介绍了基于三层B／S结构和网络数据库技术的农业科技专家信息系统的设计与实现，同时对系统的结构、特点及各模块的功能和使用进行了阐述。     

The chromosomal basis of human neoplasia

High-resolution banding techniques for the study of human chromosomes have revealed that the malignant cells of most tumors analyzed have characteristic chromosomal defects. Translocations of the same chromosome segments with precise breakpoints occur in many leukemias and lymphomas, and a specific chromosome band is deleted in several carcinomas. Trisomy, or the occurrence of a particular chromosome in triplicate, is the only abnormality observed in a few neoplasias. It is proposed that chromosomal rearrangements play a central role in human neoplasia and may exert their effects through related genomic mechanisms. Thus, a translocation could serve to place an oncogene next to an activating DNA sequence, a deletion to eliminate an oncogene repressor, and trisomy to carry extra gene dosage.     

The molecular basis of erythrocyte shape

Recent discoveries about the molecular organization and physical properties of the mammalian erythrocyte membrane and its associated structural proteins can now be used to explain, and may eventually be used to predict, the shape of the erythrocyte. Such explanations are possible because the relatively few structural proteins of the erythrocyte are regularly distributed over the entire cytoplasmic surface of the cell membrane and because the well-understood topological associations of these proteins seem to be stable in comparison with the time required for the cell to change shape. These simplifications make the erythrocyte the first nonmuscle cell for which it will be possible to extend our knowledge of molecular interactions to the next hierarchical level of organization that deals with shape and shape transformations.     

The molecular basis of neuronal excitability

Neurons process and transmit information in the form of electrical signals. Their electrical excitability is due to the presence of voltage-sensitive ion channels in the neuronal plasma membrane. In recent years, the voltage-sensitive sodium channel of mammalian brain has become the first of these important neuronal components to be studied at the molecular level. This article describes the distribution of sodium channels among the functional compartments of the neuron and reviews work leading to the identification, purification, and characterization of this membrane glycoprotein.     

基于思维进化算法径向基函数神经网络的土壤有机质空间异质性研究

提出一种基于思维进化算法径向基函数神经网络的土壤有机质空间异质性研究方法(MECRBF)。以江西省万年县为案例区,在全县范围内采集耕地表层(0~20 cm)土壤样品954个,分别采用该方法和以邻近信息和地理坐标为输入的径向基函数神经网络方法(RBF-Near),以及普通克里格法来模拟土壤有机质空间分布。以验证样本实测值和预测值的决定系数与逼近误差作为评判标准,对比各方法在县域尺度上土壤有机质空间变异和空间插值方面的效果。对763个采样点进行建模、191个验证样点进行独立验证的预测结果表明,在验证点预测中,MECRBF的均方根误差、平均绝对误差、平均相对误差较RBF-Near分别降低了0.50 g·kg^-1、0.39 g·kg^-1、1.40百分点,差异显著(P<0.05),较普通克里格法分别降低2.59 g·kg^-1、1.89 g·kg^-1、7.76百分点,差异显著(P<0.05)。从模拟效果来看,MECRBF的决定系数最高,逼近误差最小;从空间分布模拟图来看,MECRBF能更好地表达土壤有机质空间异质性。提出的MECRBF可为县域尺度下土壤性质空间异质性研究提供方法参考。     

中国网络游戏产业发展现状及其经济分析

自2000年的《万王之王》以来，网络游戏在中国大地上已经走过了五个年头。期间，网络游戏行业取得了巨大的成功，培育了巨大的消费市场，利润也成倍增长，造就了如盛大这样的巨型运营商，与此同时，网络游戏对青少年的不良影响也引起了广泛关注。到底网络游戏在中国现状如何，怎样以经济学的眼光来看待网络游戏行业在中国的发展呢？本文将给出答案。     

生态脆弱区贫困与生态环境的博弈分析

生态脆弱区既是生态环境破坏最典型、最强烈的区域,也是贫困问题最集中的区域。然而,实践中试图摆脱"贫困陷阱"的成功案例并不多见。其中一个重要原因是鲜有协同生态保护与扶贫的研究,尤其是忽视了不同利益主体的相互作用过程与机制。从博弈论的视角,探讨生态脆弱区不同利益主体的两组核心博弈,即政府与民众以及政府与企业的博弈。研究发现,扶贫与生态环境保护相互作用过程事实上就是协调不同利益主体的目标与利益的博弈过程,博弈结果一定程度上决定了扶贫的效果以及生态环境保护的效应。研究为深入理解贫困与生态环境相互作用的过程与机制提供一个理论分析框架,并为中国生态脆弱区可持续发展实践提供有益借鉴。     

学术自由、国家干预之冲突与博弈

学术自由与国家干预具有内在的联系与矛盾,彼此间的冲突与博弈此消彼长,以平衡促进和谐,推动发展,达到共赢,但平衡和谐则受具体的社会历史条件的制约,之间的张力有所不同.大学发展活力需要国家尊重大学自身发展规律,及对学术追求的自由,避免因强行推动而进行的大规模突变对大学发展造成伤害,应当体现国家控制的限度.大学自身也要顺应时代前进,同时也要形成自我发展和自我制约机制,克服自身的盲从,提升独立思考和创新的品质,彰显大学的本质活力.