Effect of water surface condition on survival,growth and swim bladder inflation of yellowfin tuna,Thunnus albacares (Temminck and Schlegel), larvae

Early‐stage mortality due to surface water tension‐related death and due to sinking to the tank bottom was investigated for yellowfin tuna, Thunnus albacares (YFT), larvae. Different aeration rates and rearing water surface conditions were examined to evaluate the effect on larval survival, swim bladder inflation and growth. The percentage survival of yolk sac larvae was significantly higher when the rearing water surface was covered with fish oil at aeration rates of 0 and 50 mL min^?1. The highest mortality occurred at the highest aeration rate of 250 mL min^?1 regardless of surface water condition. A second experiment was conducted twice under different water surface conditions: the water surface was covered by fish oil (FO), skimmed of fish oil (SS), and was not treated (NC). The percentage survival was not significantly different between treatments after 7 days of feeding. In contrast to the survival, the proportion of larvae with inflated swim bladders was significantly higher for the NC and SS groups than that of the FO group. Results of these experiments indicate that the addition of oil to the rearing water surface without its removal interferes with the initial swim bladder inflation in YFT larvae. These results also indicate that YFT larvae need to obtain (gulp) air at the water surface for initial swim bladder inflation, and success of initial swim bladder inflation may be crucial for their survival.     

鳔器官的发育对人工培育鱼苗的影响

论述了鳔器官的发育对海水鱼类人工培育苗种的影响，仔鱼期鳔的形成和充气是影响闭鳔海水鱼类人工育苗成效的重要因素之一，鳔发育异常一是导致仔稚鱼死亡，二是导致脊柱前凸。在人工养殖条件下，影响海洋闭鳔鱼类鳔器官充气的因子有营养因子和环境因子，充气量，水表面的油膜，温度，盐度和光照等环境因子影响仔鱼水表面吞饮空气，影响鳔的充气率，仔鱼摄食EPA和DHA含量低的饵料后，活力差，仔鱼到达水表面吞饮空气的能力下降，鳔的开腔率降低，此外仔鱼体内甲状腺素的含量可能对仔鱼鳔的开腔率产生影响。     

Initial swim bladder inflation in the larvae of Tilapia mossambica (Peters) and Morone saxatilis (Walbaum)

Tilapia and striped bass larvae inflate their swim bladders on the 7th–9th and 5th–7th days after hatching, respectively. The primordial bladder of Tilapia has no pneumatic duct and larvae do not gulp atmospheric gas for the initial swim bladder inflation. Prominent columnar epithelium is characteristics of the bladder of Tilapia prior to inflation. Hypoxic conditions inhibit inflation and result in degeneration of the columnar epithelium and the irreversible malfunction of the swim bladder. The swim bladder of the striped bass has a glandular epithelium and a pneumatic duct prior to inflation. The mode of the initial inflation and functional role of the pneumatic duct remain unclear, although strong aeration and turbulent water in the rearing containers were observed to be main factors enhancing normal inflation of the larval swim bladder.     

Promotion of initial swim bladder inflation and effect of initial inflation failure on skeletal malformation in cultured seven‐band grouper Hyporthodus septemfasciatus (Thunberg)

The effects of the removal of the oily surface film on initial swim bladder inflation and survival in cultured seven‐band grouper Hyporthodus septemfasciatus were investigated during the larval stage. Additionally, the relationship between swim bladder inflation failure and malformations in later stages was examined. To explore promotion conditions for inflation, duplicate experiments were conducted under three different water surface conditions: removal of the oily surface film (ROF group), covering the water surface with an oil film (COF group), and sealing the water surface with liquid paraffin (SLP group). Larval swim bladder inflation was first observed 14 days after hatching (DAH) in the ROF group; thereafter, swim bladder inflation rates increased to 11.1% and 38.7% until the end of the experiments. This indicates that initial swim bladder inflation occurs at the pre‐flexion stage in larval development. Conversely, bladder inflation was rarely observed in the COF or SLP groups, indicating the promotional effect of surface film removal on larval swim bladder inflation and suggesting that gulping atmospheric air is necessary for initial inflation. Although larval water surface death occurred frequently in the ROF group, no significant difference existed in any group between the survival rates at 10 DAH and at the end of the experiment. The incidence rate of spinal curvature and deformation of the centra was significantly higher in individuals without initial swim bladder inflation, and these malformations mainly occurred in the caudal vertebra. Therefore, the removal of the oily surface film promotes initial swim bladder inflation and reduces larval malformations.     

Swim bladder inflation and survival of Mugil cephalus to 50 days

Excessive inflation of the swim bladder causes immobility and mortality of 12-day old larvae of Mugil cephalus and other marine fish. Increased aeration or mechanical agitation of the water in rearing tanks maintained the larvae below the water surface, and the swim bladder formed and functioned normally. Survival was dramatically increased. Two experimental production tanks, stocked initially with 15 000 and 20 000 larvae, at a density of 5.25 and 7.0/l, respectively, yielded 33.5% and 16.9% juveniles on day 50. Only an outbreak of ciliated parasites prevented both tanks from having survival figures of over 30%.     

干露及淡水浸泡对菲律宾蛤仔稚贝生长和存活的影响

于2004年3—5月研究了干露及淡水浸泡对菲律宾蛤仔稚贝生长及存活的影响。试验结果表明,(1)同种规格稚贝耐干露和淡水浸泡能力随着温度升高而下降;相同温度下,不同规格稚贝耐干露能力随规格的增加而增大,耐淡水浸泡能力在稚贝壳长9.5mm时,随规格增大而增大,当稚贝规格9.5mm时,耐淡水浸泡能力随规格的增大而减小。(2)经干露和淡水浸泡的稚贝在开始7d内生长缓慢,生长速度远不及未经处理的稚贝,7d后各种规格的稚贝生长明显加快,达到、甚至超过未经处理稚贝的生长速度,存在补偿生长现象。     

Oxygen consumption and swim speed of the harbor porpoise Phocoena phocoena

ABSTRACT: The rate of oxygen consumption and energetic cost of locomotion of captive harbor porpoises Phocoena phocoena were studied in Hokkaido, Japan, using respirometry together with externally attached devices (a data logger) that recorded swim speed and dive depth. Harbor porpoises swam freely in a tank at a swim speed ranging 0.5–4.2 m/s. Swimming during most dives was relatively slow with mean swim speed being 0.76–0.91 m/s. Oxygen consumption rate of the swimming harbor porpoise increased with swim speed according to a cubed function. The minimum cost of transport during underwater swimming in the harbor porpoise was 2.39–2.43 J/kg per m at an average swim speed of 1.3–1.5 m/s. However, porpoises usually swam slower to conserve energy and dived aerobically. This explains why harbor porpoises can dive repeatedly and continuously without extended rest at the sea surface.     

Temperature and dietary starch level affected protein but not starch digestibility in gilthead sea bream juveniles

A study was carried out with gilthead sea bream juveniles to assess the effect of water temperature (18 and 25°C) and dietary pregelatinized starch level (10, 20 and 30%) on digestibility of protein and starch and on the activity of proteolytic and amylolytic enzymes. ADC of pregelatinized starch was very high (>99%) irrespectively of dietary inclusion level, and it was not affected by water temperature. ADC of protein was also high (>90%) but improved at the higher water temperature. Dietary starch interacted with protein digestibility, which decreased as dietary starch level increased. Temperature affected both acid and basic protease activities, with acid protease activity being higher at 25°C and basic protease activity being higher at 18°C. However, total proteolytic activity and amylase activities were not affected by water temperature. Dietary carbohydrate exerted no effect on proteolytic or amylolitic activities. It is concluded that gilthead sea bream juveniles digest pregelatinized starch very efficiently irrespective of water temperature, due to adjustments of amylase activity to cope with temperature differences. Pregelatinized starch interacts negatively with protein digestibility, with the ADC of protein decreasing as dietary starch levels increase.     

Mortality,growth and swim bladder stress syndrome of sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) larvae under varied environmental conditions

Responses to variations in light, temperature and salinity by sea bass larvae are described here. Massive mortality of larvae has been common in Mediterranean culture efforts. This mortality, associated with swim bladder malfunction, has been analysed regarding its association with individual stresses.Optimum temperatures for sea bass growth are clearly unsuited to larval rearing, while brackish sea water (25‰) just as clearly improves growth and survival. Light and nutritional regimes as well as water quality are other sources of environmental stress that may induce the swim bladder stress syndrome (SBSS) and reduce growth and survival. SBSS should not be confused with “gas bubble” disease and its most effective treatment depends on an understanding of larval environmental requirements.Larval growth was enhanced by both decreased salinity and increased temperature, but not by increased light. SBSS and mortality were avoided only when larvae were held at ambient temperature (12.5°C), natural light, and reduced salinity (25‰). Larvae dying with distended swim bladders also had other symptoms of environmental stress—spinal abnormalities, calculi in the urinary bladders, copious mucous and opaque (edemous) tissues. Elevations of temperature and light, as well as ambient sea water (36‰) are environmental stressors and induce SBSS.     

Preliminary trials on the use of large outdoor tanks for the ongrowing of Octopus maya juveniles

Octopus maya has high growth rates, direct embryonic development and high hatchling survival, making it a good candidate for aquaculture diversification. The present study was designed to evaluate growth rate, survival and food conversion of O. maya juveniles cultured in outdoor tanks. Octopuses were captured from the wild during the fishing season, and fed discarded fish heads and whole crabs. Three trials were conducted between 23 and 32 days, in September (trial 1), October (trial 2) and November (trial 3) where a decrease in sea water temperature was registered (29–24 °C, from September to November respectively). Octopuses were held in three outdoor tanks of 5 m² of bottom area and 0.5 m deep, aerated sea water and water flow allowing 10% of water exchange per day. Initial density was between 2.9 and 3.8 kg m^?3 with different initial mean weight of 542.3 ± 18.8, 493 ± 11.9 and 321 ± 7.8 g, for trials 1, 2 and 3 respectively. Specific growth rate varied between 1.8 and 2.7% BW day^?1 with no apparent relation with the culture temperature. These results put in evidence that tanks used are adequate for the ongrowing of O. maya juveniles, with commercial size being attained in a few weeks.     

Preliminary study on broodstock rearing,induced breeding and grow‐out culture of the sea cucumber Holothuria scabra in Sri Lanka

Experiments were conducted to identify suitable methods for broodstock rearing, induced breeding and grow‐out culture of Holothuria scabra in Sri Lanka. Two hundred and seventy‐two brooders (500–600 g) collected from off Mannar were individually packed in oxygen‐filled polythene bags with and without sea water and transported to a sea cucumber hatchery at Kalpitiya. Lagoon pens, sand‐filled fibreglass tanks and bare tanks were used in triplicates to maintain brooders. Spawning was initiated using air dry, water jet and thermal‐stimulation methods. Hatchery produced juveniles with an average weight of 11 ± 5 g were reared (2 individuals m^?2) in lagoon pens, mud ponds and fibreglass tanks in triplicates. The significantly high evisceration rate was observed when brooders were transported without sea water (t‐test, P < 0.05). Brooders maintained in bare tanks showed a significant weight reduction than the brooders in sand‐filled tanks and lagoon pens (anova , P < 0.05, d.f. = 2). Thermal stimulation (ambient temperature ± 3–5°C) was found to be the most successful method of spawning initiation of H. scabra. The mean (±SD) percentage males and females participated for spawning per trial was 9.2 (±10) and 4.6 (±5.6) respectively. On an average, 1.16 millions of eggs (±1.03 SD, n = 5) were obtained per spawning trial. H. scabra juveniles reared in tanks showed significantly lower growth rate than the juveniles in pens and ponds (anova , P < 0.05). Lagoon pens and sand‐filled tanks are suitable to maintain brooders and lagoon pens can be successfully used for mass rearing of juveniles.     

几种物质使刺参脱离附着基效果的比较

水温4～10℃时于1L塑料瓶(容水800mL)中放入5头体质量0.5～7.4g的刺参,适应24h后加入不同体积(质量)分数的酒精(99.7%分析纯)(0%、0.5%、1.0%、2.0%、5.0%、10.0%)、氯化钾(99.7%分析纯)(0.00%、0.40%、0.60%、0.80%、0.10%、1.20%)、氯化钠(99.7%分析纯)(盐度45.0、50.0、55.0、60.0、65.0、80.0、100)和复方中草药(分苗灵)(1∶100、1∶200、1∶300、1∶400、1∶500、1∶600)溶液,观察刺参附着力的变化及化皮率。试验结果表明,酒精体积分数在2.0%以下时,刺参的自动脱落率达90%以上,高于2.0%时,化皮率明显增加。在盐度55.0以下浸泡20min后,刺参的自动脱落率随盐度的升高而上升,12℃时比8℃时增加了近30%。当分苗灵与海水的质量之比为1∶300以下时,刺参在其中浸泡30min后,脱落率最高,浸泡60min 90%以上的刺参脱落,未出现化皮、吐肠等异常现象,分苗后不用再进行消毒处理。     

Fertilization and Development of Eggs of the Sea Urchin Lytechinus variegatus Maintained on an Extruded Feed

Sea urchin eggs are used extensively as models for studies in developmental and molecular biology. Developing aquaculture techniques and facilities for sea urchins would facilitate their use for this purpose and for production of young sea urchins for stock enhancement. A basic requirement for the aqua-culture of sea urchins is the availability of a feed that predictably produces eggs of a consistent, high quality. We tested an extruded feed with Lyrechinus variegatus for this purpose. Lytechinus variegatus (mean horizontal diameter 55 mm, 75 g wet weight) were collected in April 1998. Nine individuals were maintained in each of four aquaria with closed, recirculating filtered sea water. They were fed approximately 1 g extruded feedindividual per week. All feed was consumed. The mean weight of the sea urchins changed little with this feeding regime. The sea urchins spawned spontaneously on a monthly basis during water changes. Four females in February and one in March were spawned by injection with potassium chloride. Fertilization was 99–100% successful in each case. Egg diameters from these spawnings and a spontaneous spawning in April ranged from 102 × 6 to 128 × 1 μm. Gastrulation occurred in <20 h and metamorphosis after 22 to 37 d. Newly metamorphosed juveniles ranged in size from 435 × 38 to 473 × 56 μm. Egg size, larval size, the chronology of embryonic and larval development, and size of newly metamorphosed juveniles are similar to those obtained from field individuals reported in the literature. These results indicate that a predictable production of high quality eggs by sea urchins under controlled conditions in the laboratory with a prepared feed is feasible.     

Swim bladder inflation as a possible cause of saddleback-like syndrome malformation in hatchery-reared red spotted grouper <Emphasis Type="Italic">Epinephelus akaara</Emphasis>

Saddleback-like syndrome is one of the most frequently observed malformations in hatchery-reared red spotted grouper Epinephelus akaara. Saddleback-like syndrome is characterized by a V-shaped dorsal-profile depression behind the head region accompanied by deformities or misalignments of the first to fourth neural spines on the vertebral column and the first to fourth pterygiophores of the dorsal fin. Abnormal swim bladder inflation in several finfish species leads to malformations, particularly of the vertebral column. The present study examined the influence of swim bladder inflation on saddleback-like syndrome in hatchery-reared red spotted grouper. The incidence of saddleback-like syndrome increased as swim bladder inflation rate increased. Additionally, the incidence of saddleback-like syndrome among juveniles with inflated swim bladders was significantly higher than that among juveniles with uninflated swim bladders. The larval swim bladder is located just below the first to fifth vertebrae and the first to fifth dorsal spines, where saddleback-like syndrome occurs. Our results suggest that an inflated swim bladder increases the risk of saddleback-like syndrome in hatchery-reared red spotted grouper.     

Hatching events in the cysts of Artemia salina

Prior to hydration, the cysts of Artemia salina are cup-shaped with a diameter of approximately 0.18 mm. Upon immersion in sea water, the cysts slightly increase in diameter to 0.19 mm and assume a spherical shape. Hatching begins with the splitting of the surface coat. The split runs along a straight line, approximately one-half the circumference of the cyst. The exposed fracture in the surface coat reveals three distinct regions: (1) a thin (1.2 μm) smooth outer layer; (2) a thick (4.7 μm) ‘spongy’ layer; and (3) a thin (1.8 μm) fibrous inner layer. The split becomes more pronounced as the nauplius, enclosed within a transparent hatching membrane, slowly emerges. Once completely emerged from the cyst, the nauplius begins a series of beating movements which rupture the hatching membrane, allowing the nauplius to swim free.     

The effect of colour on the appearance of monofilament nylon under water

Monofilament nylon line can be made more or less visible when viewed in the sea or in green light in tanks by the use of coloured dye. The undyed line, although least visible when perpendicular to the sea surface, shows a bright jewel-like glint when parallel to it. There is also a bright glint in the knots of netting, being brightest where the line is oriented parallel to the sea surface. The glint changes from mainly a surface reflection in air to an internal glow when immersed in water due to a lengthening of the focal length of the nylon cylinder. However, because in the sea the glint is derived from green downwelling light that has passed into the nylon cylinder, it is reduced by pale dye colours that remove a proportion of the green light. This allows a controlled reduction of the glint and a closer match with the water background when viewed horizontally.     

在含等量维生素E饲料中添加β-胡萝卜素和虾青素对仿刺参幼参抗应激能力的影响

在水温11．0～20．0℃、盐度35‰和pH值7．5的条件下,将初始平均体质量为3．46g的仿刺参（Aposticho-pusiaponicusSelenka）幼参放养在容水300L的塑料水槽中,A组投喂含90mg·kg-。β-胡萝卜素＋60mg·kg-1维生素E（VE）的饲料,B组投喂含60mg·kg-1虾青素和60mg·kg-1VE的饲料,以不添加上述3种物质的基础饲料作对照（C组）。饲养80d后,将A、B,及C组幼参直接放人盐度（用淡水和海水或加入海水晶,配制成盐度为0、5、10、15、20、25、30、35、40、45,及50）、氨（用NH4Cl配制成氨浓度（Nn3-N）0、0.5、1．0、2．0、4．0、8．0,及10mg·L-1）、温度（0、4、10、15、20、25、30、35,及40℃）急剧变化的1500mL的白色聚乙烧杯中,每个处理3个重复,测定存活率和体腔液中SOD活力等指标。应激处理期间,不投喂,24h换水一次并吸出排泄物。96h后,盐度、氨处理组的仿刺参存活率高于对照组,存活仿刺参体腔液中SOD活力显著低于对照组（P〈0．05）;但A、B组仿刺参在低温应激时,存活率与对照组差异不显著（P〉0．05）。结果表明：饲料中添加90mg·kg-1β-胡萝卜素＋60mg·kg-1VE或60mg·kg-1虾青素＋60mg·kg-1VE均能显著提高仿刺参对盐度和氨应激的抵抗能力（P〈0．05）,但抗低温应激的效果不显著（P〉0．05）。     

Diel and ontogenetic body density change in Pacific bluefin tuna, Thunnus orientalis (Temminck and Schlegel), larvae

Diel and ontogenetic changes in larval body density related to swim bladder volume were investigated in Pacific bluefin tuna, Thunnus orientalis, to determine the causality of larval mortality – adhesion to the water surface and contact with the tank bottom during seedling production. The density of larvae with deflated swim bladders increased with total length and days post hatch. Diel density change was observed after day 2 post hatch; owing to daytime deflation and night‐time inflation of the swim bladder, the density was relatively higher during the daytime. Increased swim bladder volumes clearly reduced larval density during the night‐time after day 9 post hatch. However, the density of larvae with inflated swim bladders was greater than rearing water density (Δρ>0.0099). The small density difference between larvae and rearing water (Δρ=0.0022?0.0100) until day 4 post hatch may have caused larval mortality by adhesion to the water surface because larvae can be easily transported to the water surface by aeration‐driven upwelling in rearing tanks. Density increased noticeably from day 5 to day 9 post hatch. The increased density difference (Δρ=0.0065?0.0209) in larvae and rearing water possibly induced mortality by contact with the tank bottom because larvae sink particularly during the night‐time on ceasing swimming.     

Improving initial survival in cultured seahorses, Hippocampus abdominalis Leeson, 1827 (Teleostei: Syngnathidae)

This investigation aimed at improving early juvenile survival in cultured seahorses, Hippocampus abdominalis. Phototaxis from birth until 2 months of age was tested and juveniles were found to be positively phototactic within this age range. A comparison of the effect of culture vessel background (white vs. black vs. clear jars) on feeding efficiency at 1 week and 1 month of age using Artemia as prey revealed an age-dependent effect upon both attack rate and capture success. At 1 week, both attack rate and capture success were higher for juveniles contained in clear jars, and capture success was higher in black jars, as compared with white jars. At 1 month, there was no significant difference in attack rate between different jars, although capture success was higher in clear and white jars than in black jars. In a top-illuminated glass aquarium, juveniles with access to the water surface had lower survival (mean±1 SE=50±4.5%) than those without access to the water surface (73.3±4.2%). This was due to the ingestion of air bubbles when preying on Artemia nauplii congregating near the water surface. For side-illumination there was no such difference. Glass aquaria that were side-illuminated and blacked-off upwards from the waterline supported high juvenile survival (80.4±4.0% per brood) from birth through to 2 months of age in four broods.     

Active metabolism in larval and juvenile fish: ontogenetic changes,effect of water temperature and fasting

Oxygen consumption, ammonia excretion and fish swimming speed were measured in fish induced to swim by optomotor reaction in a circular metabolism chamber. The relationship between the swimming speed and fish metabolism described by exponential equations allowed the extrapolation to the standard metabolism, i.e. at zero swimming speed. The partitioning of the catabolised protein in the energy supply was estimated based on AQ (volume of ammonia/ volume of oxygen) values. Weight specific standard metabolism, as expressed by the ammonia excretion rate, decreased by one order of magnitude in coregonids as the fish grew from 20 to 780 mg body weight. The slope of the relationship between oxygen uptake and swimming speed decreased in coregonid ontogenesis. In salmon, after 12 days of fasting 28% of energy used was derived from protein, whilst coregonid juveniles utilized mostly lipid. Active swimming in fasted juveniles of coregonid, as well as in salmon, led to the accelerated utilization of protein as a source of energy, based on AQ coefficients. In juveniles acclimated to a range of water temperatures from 14 to 26°C, the changes in standard or active metabolic rate (expressed as oxygen uptake or ammonia excretion) were described by Q₁₀ coefficients. They were generally higher for the ammonia excretion rate than for the oxygen uptake rate and for active metabolism than for standard metabolism. Utilization of protein as energy for swimming differed significantly between the species, being in general one order of magnitude higher in coregonids than in salmon. The use of protein for swimming activity tended to decrease during coregonid ontogenesis.