Real-time multiplex PCR assays for reliable detection of Clostridium perfringens toxin genes in animal isolates

Typing of Clostridium perfringens strains by PCR-based determination of toxin genes proved to be a reliable method for diagnosis of enterotoxaemia in various animal species. We report the establishment and validation of three real-time fluorogenic (TaqMan) multiplex PCRs for the detection of C. perfringens alpha-, beta-, beta2-, epsilon-, entero- and iota-toxin genes. The composition of the PCRs was chosen with regard to robustness of the assays and in order to increase sensitivity compared to the conventional simplex PCRs. The combination of probe dyes selected for the real-time assays (FAM/TAMRA, Cy-5/BHQ-2 and VIC/TAMRA) as well as the designation of the chromosome-borne alpha-toxin as internal positive control allowed the creation of highly specific and sensitive, as well as time and cost effective PCRs. One hundred and three strains of C. perfringens isolated in Switzerland derived from clinical or suspected cases of enterotoxaemia in 10 different animal species were tested. The toxin genotypes were in agreement in both the conventional PCRs and the newly designed multiplex PCRs. Furthermore, the real-time PCR carried out as simplex allows to quantitate the copy numbers of plasmid-borne toxin genes in relation to the chromosomally located alpha-toxin gene.     

产气荚膜梭菌型特异性多重PCR的研究

建立了一种简单且具有型特异性的产气荚膜梭菌的多重PCR诊断方法.结果表明,该PCR特异性好,只有产气荚膜梭菌呈现阳性,被检验的其他7种梭菌以及大肠杆菌、葡萄球菌和多杀性巴氏杆菌均为阴性.该PCR具有较高的敏感性,最小检测量为4.2×105 CFU/mL,单个菌落稀释10倍后也能被检测出,适用于医院、防疫和兽医诊断等部门,具有重要的公共卫生意义.     

多重PCR检测圈养牛、猪和羊源魏氏梭菌

采用多重PCR对圈养源魏氏梭菌的α，β，ε，ι毒素基因进行了检测，结果证实该方法具有很高的特异性。通过对山东德州、枣庄、泰安、蒙阴曾经流行过魏氏梭菌病的猪场、牛场和羊场的162个粪便样品进行检测，检出率为19．1％，均为A型。应用该方法鉴别魏氏梭菌血清型快速、简便，结果对于预防治疗均具有重要的指导作用。     

产气荚膜梭菌多重PCR定型方法的建立及其应用

建立了多重PCR检测产气荚膜梭菌α、β、ε和ι毒素基因的方法。该方法具有良好的特异性和敏感性,只有产气荚膜梭菌呈现阳性,被检验的其他梭菌以及大肠杆菌、葡萄球菌均为阴性;将肉汤菌液样品10倍系列稀释后进行检测,检测灵敏度达到1.2×104CFU/mL。收集40份牛粪便样品,进行PCR检测,32份样品中成功扩增出589 bp的α毒素基因片段,阳性率为80%。结果显示,建立的多重PCR检测方法可取代血清中和试验,用于产气荚膜梭菌分型,同时表明A型产气荚膜梭菌在当地奶牛场中较为普遍。     

羊源产气荚膜梭菌不同毒素型多重PCR检测方法的建立及初步应用

根据GenBank中已发布的产气荚膜梭菌α,β,ε,ι毒素基因序列,设计并合成4对特异性引物,经过优化多重PCR反应条件,建立了检测产气荚膜梭菌不同毒素型多重PCR方法。特异性试验表明,该方法对A,B,C,D,E型产气荚膜梭菌标准菌株均扩增出了相应的目的条带,而对诺维氏梭菌和腐败梭菌扩增为阴性;灵敏性试验表明,该方法对A,B,C,D,E型标准菌株基因组DNA最低检测量分别为9.0,17.8,12.2,13.8,18.5pg;重复性试验表明,该方法有很好的重复性。应用所建立的方法从21份羊临床病料中检测出9株A型和1株C型产气荚膜梭菌。本试验建立的多重PCR方法可以进行产气荚膜梭菌的快速检测及5种毒素型的鉴别。     

Detection of Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin by ELISA

An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) has been developed as an alternative to neutralisation tests in mice to detect Clostridium perfringens type D epsilon toxin in the intestinal contents of animals which have died from suspected enterotoxaemia. The test was sensitive and quantitative and gave excellent agreement with the mouse protection test.     

The partial purification of Clostridium perfringens beta toxin.

An attempt was made to purify Clostridium perfringens Beta toxin. Crude toxin prepared by ammonium sulphate precipitation of culture supernatants was purified by chromatography on Sephadex G50, Sephadex G100 and DEAE cellulose. This material, although highly purified was not homogeneous on polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. It had a toxicity of 800 000 mouse MLDs/mg N, a typical protein absorption spectrum in the UV region, an iso-electric point of 5, 6 and the main component had a molecular mass of 42 000 +/- 2 000 (estimated by electrophoresis in sodium dodecyl sulphate containing polyacrylamide gels).     

Virulence genotyping of Salmonella spp. with multiplex PCR

The purpose of this study was to develop a multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) protocol useful in the virulence genotyping of Salmonella spp. with the idea that genotyping could augment current Salmonella characterization and typing methods. Seventeen genes associated with Salmonella invasion, fimbrial production, toxin production, iron transport, and intramacrophage survival were targeted by three PCR reactions. Most of these genes are required for full Salmonella virulence in a murine model, and many are also located on Salmonella pathogenicity islands (PAIs) and are associated with type III secretion systems (TTSSs). Once the success of procedures that used positive and negative control strains was verified, the genotypes of 78 Salmonella isolates incriminated in avian salmonellosis (primarily from sick, commercially reared chickens and turkeys) and 80 Salmonella isolates from apparently healthy chickens or turkeys were compared. Eleven of the 17 genes tested (invA, orgA, prgH, tolC, spaN [invJ], sipB, sitC, pagC, msgA, spiA, and iroN) were found in all of the isolates. Another (sopB) was present in all isolates from sick birds and all but one isolate from healthy birds. The remaining five genes (lpfC, cdtB, sifA, pefA, and spvB) were found in 10%-90% of the isolates from sick birds and 3.75%-90% of the healthy birds. No significant differences in the occurrence of these genes between the two groups of isolates were detected. These results suggest that these virulence genes, and presumably the PAls and TTSSs with which they are associated, are widely distributed among Salmonella isolates of birds, regardless of whether their hosts of origin have been identified as having salmonellosis.     

Influence of Clostridium perfringens and its toxin in germ-free chickens

Twenty-one of 56 germ-free chickens died after receiving an oral inoculation of a broth culture of Clostridium perfringens. At necropsy there was detachment and disruption of the epithelial layer at the tips of villi and sloughed epithelial cells in the duodenum. These are characteristic lesions of necrotic enteritis. Germ-free chickens receiving either purified alpha-toxin or the supernatant of broth cultures of C perfringens died, but no bird died after receiving supernatant of broth cultures neutralised by anti-alpha-toxin serum. It was concluded that alpha-toxin of C perfringens was the cause of death in young germ-free chickens.     

Clostridium perfringens toxin types in hooded seals in the Greenland Sea, determined by PCR and ELISA

Very little is known about the occurrence of Clostridium perfringens and of diseases caused by this anaerobic bacterium in marine mammals, especially those that are free-living. During a scientific expedition to the Greenland Sea (West Ice) in spring 1999, faeces samples from 70 hooded seals (Cystophora cristata) were taken to isolate C. perfiringens. Subsequently, PCR analysis of the isolates was performed with oligonucleotide primers of the genes encoding the four major lethal toxins (alpha, beta, epsilon and iota) for classification of toxin type and of the genes encoding C. perfringens beta2-toxin and enterotoxin for further subclassification. In addition, a commercial ELISA kit for detection of C. perfringens alpha, beta- and epsilon-toxin was used. C. perfingens was isolated in samples from 38 (54.3%) hooded seals. All isolates were C. perfringens toxin type A (alpha-toxin positive). This is the first report on the occurrence of C. perfringens in this arctic marine mammal species. Myositis and enterotoxemia caused by C. perfrigens were described in other marine mammals and it may be assumed that the pathogenesis of an outbreak of disease is similar to that encountered in terrestrial animals. Although there is some controversy surrounding the enteropathogenicity and virulence of alpha-toxin (concerning enterotoxemia), this study suggests that a possible outbreak of enterotoxemia caused by C. perfringens type A in hooded seals may, however, not be excluded.     

羊魏氏梭菌PCR方法的建立及初步应用

根据羊魏氏梭菌A、B、C、D、E型共有的α毒素基因,设计了1对引物,通过对PCR反应条件进行优化,建立了羊魏氏梭菌PCR检测方法。该方法扩增条带大小为255 bp,最低核酸检测量A型为0.39 ng/L、B型为0.62 ng/L、C型为0.52 ng/L、D型为0.87 ng/L、E型为0.92 ng/L,而对羊大肠杆菌、羊链球菌、金黄色葡萄球菌、羊多杀性巴氏杆菌的扩增结果均为阴性。应用该PCR方法对54份临床样本进行检测,PCR检测结果高于细菌学和生化检测结果。结果表明,该PCR方法具有很好的特异性和敏感性,可用于临床羊魏氏梭菌病的早期快速诊断。     

Naturally acquired antibodies against Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin in goats

Clostridium perfringens type D-producing epsilon toxin is a common cause of death in sheep and goats worldwide. Although anti-epsilon toxin serum antibodies have been detected in healthy non-vaccinated sheep, the information regarding naturally acquired antibodies in ruminants is scanty. The objective of the present report was to characterize the development of naturally acquired antibodies against C. perfringens epsilon toxin in goats. The levels of anti-epsilon toxin antibodies in blood serum of goat kids from two different herds were examined continuously for 14 months. Goats were not vaccinated against any clostridial disease and received heterologous colostrums from cows that were not vaccinated against any clostridial disease. During the survey one of these flocks suffered an unexpectedly severe C. perfringens type D enterotoxemia outbreak. The results showed that natural acquired antibodies against C. perfringens epsilon toxin can appear as early as 6 weeks in young goats and increase with the age without evidence of clinical disease. The enterotoxemia outbreak was coincident with a significant increase in the level of anti-epsilon toxin antibodies.     

Development and use of a multiplex polymerase chain reaction assay based on Apx toxin genes for genotyping of Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae isolates.

Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae (A. pleuropneumoniae) is the etiological agent of a porcine pleuropneumonia that threatens the global swine industry. The major pathogenic toxins of A. pleuropneumoniae include ApxI, ApxII, ApxIII, and ApxIV, which are serotype or serovar specific. Several techniques have been developed for the identification and typing of A. pleuropneumoniae. Serological assays are used to identify and serotype A. pleuropneumoniae, but factors such as cross-reactivity limit their specificity. Labor, time, and the requirement for specific antibodies are also drawbacks of these assays. Multistep polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques based on apx genes have been reported for the identification and typing of A. pleuropneumoniae. This study developed multiplex PCR for the identification and genotyping of A. pleuropneumoniae based on apx genes. This multiplex PCR technique was successful in differentiating 11 of 15 reference serotypes. Five different primer sets were used to amplify the 4 apx genes from each serotype in a single-step reaction. The multiplex PCR reported in this study was further used in genotyping 51 field isolates of A. pleuropneumoniae from different regions of Korea. The concomitant amplification of all 4 apx genes makes multiplex PCR more specific and convenient for the diagnosis and genotyping of A. pleuropneumoniae.     

Association of genes encoding beta2 toxin and a collagen binding protein in Clostridium perfringens isolates of porcine origin

Clostridium perfringens is a cause of economically significant enteritis in livestock. Beta2 toxin, encoded by one of two cpb2 alleles, is implicated as a virulence factor in this disease. Previous studies determined that the consensus cpb2 allele is preferentially associated with C. perfringens isolated from pigs. In C. perfringens strain 13, the consensus cpb2 allele is found on the plasmid pCP13, which also carries cna, encoding a putative collagen binding protein, CpCna. This protein was shown to be a bona fide collagen adhesin, as recombinant, HIS-tagged CpCna bound collagen type I as determined by Far Western blotting. Genomic DNA from C. perfringens isolated from a variety of host species were subjected to PCR to determine the prevalence of cna in these strains and correlate its carriage with the presence and type of cpb2 allele. The cna gene was found in 55.8% of isolates from all host species (n=208) and 68.1% of porcine isolates (n=119). In cpb2+ isolates, cna was present in 69.9% of isolates from all hosts (n=153), but was found in 98.7% of porcine isolates (n=75). Furthermore in porcine isolates, the consensus cpb2 allele and cna were absolutely correlated with the presence of pcp12, a pCP13-encoded gene, and pcp12 was never found in any isolate that lacks either cpb2 allele. The finding that CpCna binds collagen and that the cna gene is associated with the consensus cpb2 allele implicates CpCna as a potential virulence factor in porcine enteritis caused by C. perfringens.     

Antimicrobial resistance in Clostridium perfringens isolates from broilers in Belgium

The antimicrobial susceptibility of Clostridium perfringens strains isolated from Belgian broilers between May and September 2007 was investigated. All 39 tested isolates were sensitive to enrofloxacin, erythromycin, tylosin, florfenicol and bacitracin. Twenty-six (66%) and 24 (61%) out of the 39 tested isolates showed acquired resistance to tetracycline and lincomycin, respectively. The C. perfringens isolates were also screened by PCR for the presence of the resistance genes tet(K), tet(L), tet(M), tetB(P), tet(O), tet(W), lnu(A) and lnu(B). In 22/26 tetracycline resistant strains and 7/24 lincomycin resistant strains, resistance could be attributed to one or more of these genes. An extended frequency distribution range of MICs was seen for ampicillin. These data are consistent with data derived from studies carried out in 1980 and in 2004, indicating that no changes in antimicrobial resistance patterns have taken place during time in C. perfringens isolates from broilers in Belgium.     

产气荚膜梭菌毒素基因分型PCR检测方法的建立及初步应用

建立一种快速鉴别诊断不同型产气荚膜梭菌的PCR检测方法,为动物产气荚膜梭菌病的快速诊断及流行病学调查提供有效的技术手段。克服传统鉴定方法耗时长、费用高的缺点,提高了检测效率。通过对产气荚膜梭菌α毒素、β毒素、ε毒素和ι毒素基因序列分析,利用Premier5.0软件设计并合成了5对特异性引物,建立了针对5种不同型产气荚膜梭菌的PCR鉴别诊断方法。通过反复试验确定了最佳退火温度为53℃。通过灵敏度试验表明,PCR检测方法最低能检测到的DNA浓度α毒素为308pg/μL,β毒素、ε毒素为30.8pg/μL,ι毒素A为0.122pg/μL,ι毒素B为0.05pg/μL。通过特异性试验表明,本方法具有较高的特异性。同时,通过对本方法检测出的阳性样品16S rRNA序列分析发现,与GenBank中的其他产气荚膜梭菌的16S rRNA序列同源性均在98%以上。表明建立的检测方法灵敏度高、特异性强,可以应用于动物产气荚膜梭菌病的实验室诊断。     

Clostridium perfringens toxin types from freshwater fishes in one water reservoir of Shandong Province of China, determined by PCR

Four hundred and twenty intestinal content samples (not including intestinal tissues) of freshwater fishes (60 silver carps, 100 carps, 100 crucian carps, 60 catfishes and 100 zaieuws) caught from one water reservoir were examined bacteriologically for the occurrence of C. perfringens. Isolates were examined by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for genes encoding the four lethal toxins (alpha, beta, epsilon and iota) for classification into toxin types and for genes encoding enterotoxin and the novel beta2 toxin for further subclassification. C. perfringens could be isolated in 75 intestinal contents samples (17.9%) from freshwater fish including: 13 silver carps, 2 carps, 12 crucian carps, 40 zaieuws, and 8 catfishes. In 75 isolates, 58 strains (77.3%) were C. perfringens toxin type C (alpha and beta toxin positive), 13 strains (17.3%) were toxin type A (alpha toxin positive) and 4 strains (5.3%) were toxin type B (alpha, beta and epsilon toxin positive). In addition, the gene encoding for beta2 toxin was found in 47 strains (62.7%) of all the isolates, seven from type A, two from type B, and 38 from type C. The gene encoding for enterotoxin was not found in any isolate. These amplified toxin gene fragment were cloned and sequenced and compared with reference strains, the identity varied from 98.15% to 99.29%. This is the first report of C. perfringens alpha, beta, epsilon, beta2 toxins in freshwater fish and of beta, epsilon toxins in fish in general, and is the first discovery that the beta2 toxin could be detected in strains of type B. The origin of this bacterium and its importance to human food poisoning in freshwater fish is discussed.     

Antimicrobial susceptibilities of canine Clostridium difficile and Clostridium perfringens isolates to commonly utilized antimicrobial drugs

Clostridium difficile and Clostridium perfringens are anaerobic, Gram-positive bacilli that are common causes of enteritis and enterotoxemias in both domestic animals and humans. Both organisms have been associated with acute and chronic large and small bowel diarrhea, and acute hemorrhagic diarrheal syndrome in the dog. The objective of this study was to determine the in vitro antimicrobial susceptibilities of canine C. difficile and C. perfringens isolates in an effort to optimize antimicrobial therapy for dogs with clostridial-associated diarrhea. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of antibiotics recommended for treating C. difficile (metronidazole, vancomycin) and C. perfringens-associated diarrhea in the dog (ampicillin, erythromycin, metronidazole, tetracycline, tylosin) were determined for 70 canine fecal C. difficile isolates and 131 C. perfringens isolates. All C. difficile isolates tested had an MIC of or=256 microg/ml for both erythromycin and tylosin. A third C. perfringens isolate had an MIC of 32 microg/ml for metronidazole. Based on the results of this study, ampicillin, erythromycin, metronidazole, and tylosin appear to be effective antibiotics for the treatment of C. perfringens-associated diarrhea, although resistant strains do exist. However, because there is limited information regarding breakpoints for veterinary anaerobes, and because intestinal concentrations are not known, in vitro results should be interpreted with caution.