Distribution of Malassezia organisms on the skin of unaffected psittacine birds and psittacine birds with feather-destructive behavior

OBJECTIVE: To ascertain whether Malassezia organisms can be detected via cytologic examination and fungal culture of samples from the skin surface of psittacine birds and determine whether the number of those organisms differs between unaffected psittacines and those that have chronic feather-destructive behavior or differs by body region. DESIGN: Prospective study. ANIMALS: 50 unaffected psittacines and 53 psittacines that had feather-destructive behavior. PROCEDURE: Samples were collected by use of acetate tape strips from the skin of the head, neck, proventer, propatagium, inguinal region, and preen gland area of each bird; 0.5-cm(2) sample areas were examined microscopically for yeast, and samples were also incubated on Sabouraud dextrose agar. Polymerase chain reaction assays specific for Malassezia spp, saprophytic fungi, and Candida albicans were performed on DNA prepared from cultured colonies; nested PCR evaluation for Malassezia pachydermatis was then performed. RESULTS: Microscopically, 63 of 618 (10%) tape-strip samples contained yeast. Thirty cultured colonies were assessed via PCR assays, and all yielded negative results for Malassezia spp; C albicans was identified in 2 colony samples. The numbers of yeast identified microscopically in psittacines with feather-destructive behavior and in unaffected birds did not differ significantly, and numbers did not differ by body region. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Yeast were identified infrequently via cytologic examination of samples from the skin surface of unaffected psittacine birds or those that had chronic feather-destructive behavior. If yeast are identified on the skin of birds with feather-destructive behaviors, fungal culture of skin samples should be performed to identify the organism.     

Species-related differences in the incidence of gram-negative bacteria isolated from the cloaca of clinically normal psittacine birds

Cloacal swabs from 506 clinically normal psittacine birds of 22 species were aerobically cultured for bacteria and yeasts. In 45 (9%) samples, no microbial organisms were recovered. Gram-positive bacteria were recovered from 474 (91%) samples. The incidences of gram-negative bacteria and yeasts were: Escherichia coli 157 (31%), Enterobacter sp. 21 (4%), Klebsiella sp. 3 (0.6%), Pseudomonas sp. 4 (0.8%), and yeasts 26 (5%). Differences were noted in the recovery rate of E. coli among the various species of birds cultured. Escherichia coli was recovered from 101 of 168 cockatoos (60%) of the genus Cacatua but from only 18% of 338 non-Cacatua species. As all birds were housed in the same facility under similar conditions, this difference in the incidence rate of E. coli cannot be explained on the basis of differences in husbandry or diet alone.     

A survey of the aerobic bacteria in the feces of captive raptors

Feces of 47 captive raptors belonging to the order Falconiformes or Strigiformes were cultured for bacteria. Gram-negative bacteria, which were cultured from the feces of 45 of the 47 raptors, were the most common isolates. A wide variety of species were identified, including a newly described genus (Moellerella wisconsensis), two newly described species (Escherichia fergusonii and Proteus penneri), and a member of a newly described enteric group (CDC Enteric group 41). Additional organisms identified that have not been reported in previous bacteriological surveys of raptors were Salmonella heidelberg, Salmonella braenderup, Morganella morganii, Yersinia ruckeri, Serratia spp., and Kluyvera sp. Escherichia coli, isolated from the feces of 42 of the 47 raptors, was the most frequently recovered. Streptococcus faecalis, the second most common isolate, was cultured from 30 birds. Several differences were observed between fecal bacteria isolated from raptors fed commercially prepared chicken and those isolated from raptors not fed chicken. The most obvious difference was that birds fed chicken had more varied gram-negative bacterial species and in greater numbers per fecal sample. The potential for the isolated bacteria from raptors as pathogens in humans and avian species is discussed.     

Isolation and identification of anaerobes in the veterinary diagnostic laboratory.

In a 1-year survey (1975 to 1976) of anaerobic bacteria recovered from diseased animals, anaerobes were as follows: Clostridium spp, 50%; gram-positive nonspore-forming anaerobic bacilli, 19%; gram-negative anaerobic bacilli, 19%; Actinomyces spp, 10%; and anaerobic cocci, 1%. Anaerobes were in approximately 61% of the specimens that were culturally positive for any bacteria. Approximately 25% of the specimens did not yield any bacteria (sterile specimens). The method for isolating and identifying anaerobes was based upon the use of reducible solid mediums and was specially designed for veterinary diagnostic laboratories. Emphasis was placed on the selection, collection, and transportation of specimens.     

Microbial flora of normal canine conjunctivae

Over an 8-month period, samples were obtained from normal conjunctival sacs of 100 dogs, for aerobic and anaerobic culture. No organisms were isolated from 22% of the samples, while a single isolate was obtained from 46% and in 32% two to four species were identified. Gram-positive organisms predominated, with Staphylococcus spp., Bacillus spp. and Corynebacterium spp. accounting for 76% of the total isolates.
Gram-negative bacteria comprised 8-4% of the total. Only one obligate anaerobe, a Clostridium sp., was isolated.     

Comparison of bacteriologic culture of blood and necropsy specimens for determining the cause of foal septicemia: 47 cases (1978-1987)

Diagnosis of bacterial septicemia was confirmed by results of bacteriologic culture of antemortem blood samples and/or necropsy specimens obtained from 47 foals up to 8 days old. Gram-negative bacteria were isolated from all 47 foals, and mixed infections with more than one organism were involved in 26 (55%). Escherichia coli, Actinobacillus spp, and Klebsiella pneumoniae were the most frequent isolates, infecting 55, 34, and 23% of foals, respectively. Gram-positive bacteria and anaerobic bacteria were isolated only from foals with mixed infections with gram-negative organisms. Clostridium perfringens was the only anaerobe isolated. In 38 (81%) of 47 foals with confirmed septicemia, blood samples were culture-positive. Thirty-two septicemic foals subsequently died, allowing a comparison to be made between the species of bacteria isolated by culture of blood with those recovered by culture of internal organs at necropsy. Blood failed to yield any gram-negative organisms in 12 (37.5%) of 32 foals from which a gram-negative pathogen was isolated at necropsy. Forty-three percent of the gram-negative bacteria, including 59% of the E coli, and 10% of the gram-positive bacteria found in septicemic foals at necropsy were not detected earlier by results of bacteriologic culture of blood.     

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BACTERIAL POPULATION OF THE OS CERVIX OF THE EWE BEFORE AND AFTER EMBRYO DEATH

Bacterial samples were isolated from the os cervix of mature Merino ewes during a normal oestrous cycle and after colchicine treatment which killed the 25-day old embryos. The population of bacteria was small during the oestrous cycle and consisted of Achromobacter spp. Alcaligenes spp, Corynebacterium spp, Bacillus spp and Escherichia coli. There was a significant increase in the numbers of bacteria isolated and a change in the proportions of the bacteria isolated from ewes after embryo death. Much greater numbers of potentially pathogenic organisms, including Pasteurella multocida, Corynebacterium pyogenes, Staphylococcus spp and Streptococcus spp were isolated after embryos were killed. It is suggested that persistence of potential pathogens in the vagina may impair fertility in ewes at the first oestrus after embryo death.     

Diagnosis by polymerase chain reaction of Erysipelas septicemia in a flock of ring-necked pheasants

A flock of 810 pheasants experienced 6.2% mortality over 6 days. Affected birds were weak and lethargic for up to 24 hr before death. Examined birds were thin, and gross lesions consisted of thick opaque crops and cecal cores. Histologically, there was capillariasis of the crop and multifocal ulcerative typhlitis with Heterakis spp. infection, and numerous systemic intravascular monocytes were filled with clusters of blue rod-shaped organisms. The organisms were gram-positive bacilli by Brown and Brenn staining and ultrastructural analysis. Liver bacterial cultures were negative for pathogenic bacteria. Erysipelas septicemia was diagnosed by an Erysipelothrix species-specific polymerase chain reaction method with the substrate DNA isolated from formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded liver.     

Congo red binding of Escherichia coli isolated from the cloacae of psittacine birds

Binding of Congo red dye by Escherichia coli is associated with the pathogenicity of the organism. The purpose of the present study was to determine the incidence of Congo red binding exhibited by E. coli isolated from the cloacae of psittacine birds, to examine the association between the Congo red status of the E. coli isolates and the health status of birds, and to assess the potential value of Congo red binding as a screening test for identifying pathogenic strains of E. coli isolated form the cloacae of psittacine birds. Escherichia coli was isolated from the cloacae of 120/435 (28%) psittacine birds; 17/120 (14%) of the E. coli isolates bound the dye (Congo red-positive) and 103/120 (86%) did not bind the dye (Congo red-negative). All of the Congo red-positive isolates were recovered from subjectively abnormal birds, whereas Congo red-negative isolates were recovered from both subjectively normal (71/120 [59%]) and abnormal (32/120 [27%]) birds.     

Bacterial flora of the conjunctiva and nasal cavity in normal and diseased captive bustards.

A survey was carried out to describe the normal aerobic bacterial flora of the conjunctiva and nasal cavity of captive houbara bustards (Chlamydotis undulata), kori bustards (Ardeotis kori), and white-bellied bustards (Eupodotis senegalensis) maintained at the National Avian Research Center, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. A total of 58 samples were examined from the nasal cavity and 55 samples from the conjunctiva of healthy bustards. There was no bacterial growth in 45% of conjunctival samples. Bacteria isolated from the conjunctiva of healthy birds included Micrococcus spp., Staphylococcus auricularis, Staphylococcus xylosus, Staphylococcus capitis, Staphylococcus warneri, Bacillus spp., and Enterobacter amigenus. Bacteria isolated from the nasal cavity of healthy birds included Bacillus spp., Micrococcus spp., S. auricularis, S. xylosus, Staphylococcus simulans, Staphylococcus saprophyticus, Staphylococcus hyicus, Staphylococcus cohnii, Staphylococcus sciuri, Aerococcus spp., and Providencia rettgeri. These findings were compared with bacterial isolates from bustards with clinical signs of ocular or upper respiratory tract diseases. Mycoplasma spp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pseudomonas stutzeri, Proteus mirabilis, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella spp., Aeromonas hydrophila, and Staphylococcus aureus were the pathogenic bacteria isolated from the conjunctiva of 34.3% bustards with ocular discharges. Mycoplasma spp., P. aeruginosa, Pseudomonas spp., P. mirabilis, E. coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and S. aureus were the pathogenic bacteria isolated from the nasal cavity of 74% bustards with upper respiratory tract diseases.     

Bacterial and fungal flora in healthy eyes of birds of prey.

Birds of prey are often affected with external ocular injuries that are routinely treated with antimicrobial agents used for small animals. The resident ocular bacterial and fungal flora is still unknown in birds of prey and this knowledge would be very useful in assessing the accuracy of treatments. In a study involving 65 raptors with healthy eyes, swabs were taken from both eyes to identify the resident bacterial and fungal flora. Fifty-five birds had a positive culture in one or both eyes. Both gram-positive and gram-negative organisms were isolated, with a predominance of Staphylococcus spp., which were found in 52.3% of cultures. Only two fungal species, Aspergillus spp. and Cladosporium spp. were found. The overall results of this study are similar to previous studies carried out in humans and other animals.     

The occurrence of Escherichia coli, Aeromonas hydrophila, Plesiomonas shigelloides and Clostridium perfringens in the intestinal flora of gray herons (Ardea cinerea)

The flora of the large intestine of 92 grey herons was examined for the frequency of aerobic and microaerobic growing bacteria. Clostridium perfringens, Aeromonas hydrophila, Plesiomonas shigelloides and E. coli were isolated from 55%, 48%, 14% and 35% of the birds, respectively. It could be demonstrated that the findings of these bacteria in the intestinal flora are depending on the age of the birds. The percentage of carriers of Clostridium perfringens, Aeromonas hydrophila and Plesiomonas shigelloides was highest in nestlings younger than 18 days, less high in older nestlings and lowest in adult grey herons. Contrary to those bacteria, E. coli was found more often in the intestinal flora at increasing age of the birds. Salmonella spp. were isolated from 6 birds. Two birds yielded positive for Yersinia enterocolitica and Campylobacter spp., respectively. Other aerobic and microaerobic bacteria play a less significant role as part of the intestinal flora.     

Bacterial infection of the lower respiratory tract in 34 horses

OBJECTIVE: To investigate associations between the bacteriology and aspects of history, clinical presentation, outcome and pathology of lower respiratory tract disease of 34 horses. PROCEDURE: Detailed aerobic and anaerobic bacteriological investigations were performed on clinical specimens from horses with pneumonia, lung abscessation and necrotic pneumonia with or without pleurisy in an attempt to identify those bacteria that might contribute to the initiation and progression of infection. RESULTS: Bacteria were cultured from 33 of the 34 horses. In ten cases, only aerobic/facultatively anaerobic isolates were cultured while aerobic/facultatively anaerobic bacteria and obligately anaerobic bacteria were isolated in the other 23 cases. Moderate to large numbers of anaerobic bacteria were isolated only when the estimated duration of illness was at least five days. Bacteria were not cultured from 12 of the pleural fluid samples but were always cultured from pulmonary samples (either transtracheal aspirates from live horses or pulmonary lesions at necropsy). Streptococcus equi subsp zooepidemicus was isolated in the three cases where only one bacterial species was cultured. In the other 30 cases, multiple species were isolated. These included most often and in greatest numbers, Streptococcus equi subsp zooepidemicus, Pasteurellaceae, Escherichia coli, anaerobic cocci, Eubacterium fossor, Bacteroides tectum, Prevotella heparinolytica, Fusobacterium spp, and pigmented members of the genera Prevotella and Porphyromonas. Aerobic/facultatively anaerobic organisms were isolated from 97% of horses, while obligately anaerobic organisms were cultured from 68% of horses. CONCLUSION: There was no association between the isolation of any specific bacterium and the outcome of disease. However, obligately anaerobic bacteria (such as anaerobic cocci, Bacteroides tectum, P heparinolytica and Fusobacterium spp) and the facultatively anaerobic species Escherichia coli, were recovered more commonly from horses that died or were euthanased than from those that survived. There was an association between failure of horses to recover from pleuropneumonia and delay in diagnosis and initiation of treatment.     

The resemblance of clinical attributes between mastitic cows with no growth on bacterial milk cultures and those with gram-positive bacteria cultured

The clinical attributes of 40 dairy cows which had mastitis but no growth of bacteria from the milk were analyzed and compared to the attributes in 102 cows with only gram-positive and 61 cows with only gram-negative bacteria cultured from the milk. Cows with no bacteria cultured from the milk did not differ significantly from cows with gram-positive bacteria cultured, but 9 of 12 attributes were significantly different between cows with no bacteria cultured and cows with gram-negative bacteria cultured. Discriminant analysis was used to classify cows as members of the gram-positive or gram-negative culture groups. The discriminant equation was then applied to the cows with no bacteria cultured, and 78% of cows with no bacteria cultured were classified as members of the gram-positive group. Most mastitis in cows with no bacteria grown from the milk was probably due to gram-positive bacteria. If antibiotic therapy is used in cows with persistent mastitis and a negative culture in the belief that the culture is a false negative, treatment with antibiotics effective only against gram-negative organisms would not be appropriate.     

Fungal flora on cutaneous and mucosal surfaces of cats infected with feline immunodeficiency virus or feline leukemia virus

OBJECTIVE: To compare cutaneous and mucosal mycoflora in cats infected with FIV or FeLV with that in noninfected cats. ANIMALS: 85 client-owned cats; 24 seropositive for FIV, 10 seropositive for FeLV, 1 seropositive for both viruses, and 50 seronegative for both viruses. PROCEDURE: Cutaneous specimens were obtained from the coat and external acoustic meatus (ear canal) and mucosal specimens from the oropharynx and rectum. Fungi were isolated from specimens, using Sabouraud dextrose agar incubated at 27 or 37 C for cutaneous and mucosal specimens, respectively. RESULTS: Fungal colonies were cultured from at least 1 specimen from 83 of 85 (97.6%) cats. The most common fungal isolates were Aspergillus spp (cultured from 59.3% of all specimens), Penicillium spp (50.0%), Cladosporium spp (44.2%), Scopulariopsis spp (41.8%), and lipophilic yeasts of the genus Malassezia (31.4%). A greater diversity of fungal genera was isolated from retrovirus-infected cats, and Malassezia spp were more commonly recovered from these cats, compared with noninfected cats. Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans, and dermatophytes (eg, Microsporum canis) were rarely isolated from any cat. Significant differences in frequency of isolation of C. neoformans and dermatophytes were not found between infected and noninfected cats. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Cats infected with FIV or FeLV may have a greater diversity of cutaneous and mucosal mycoflora than noninfected cats. However, infected cats may be no more likely than noninfected cats to expose humans to zoonotic fungi such as C. albicans, C. neoformans, and M. canis.     

Cloacal flora isolated from wild black-bellied whistling ducks (Dendrocygna autumnalis) in Laguna La Nacha, Mexico.

Cloacal swabs from 110 adult black-bellied whistling ducks trapped at Laguna La Nacha, Tamaulipas, Mexico, were cultured to determine the prevalence of normal and potentially pathogenic bacteria. Twenty-five gram-negative enterobacteria and four gram-positive cocci were isolated. The most common isolates included Escherichia coli (54%), Staphylococcus spp. (29%), Streptococcus spp. (22%), Aeromonas hydrophila (15%) Enterobacter cloacae (14%), and Micrococcus sp. (14%). The implications of whistling ducks as possible reservoirs of pathogenic bacteria are discussed.     

Dog-bite wounds: bacteriology and treatment outcome in 37 cases

Bite wounds in 37 dogs were prospectively evaluated. Ninety-five percent of animals presented within 12 hours of injury. The most common wound locations were neck, limbs, head, chest, shoulder region, and abdomen. Eighty-six percent had wounds to multiple locations. Fifty-seven percent of wounds were Class 4 (i.e., most severe). Based on results of all samples, 65% had positive aerobic cultures, 15% had positive anaerobic cultures, and 33% had negative cultures. The most commonly isolated aerobic bacteria were Staphylococcus intermedius, Enterococcus spp., Staphylococcus coagulase negative, and Escherichia coli. Most common anaerobic isolates were Bacillus spp., Clostridium spp., and Corynebacterium spp. Severe bite wounds had a high rate of bacterial contamination at presentation. No single antibiotic or antibiotic combination was effective against all bacteria that were cultured.     

Gram-negative bacterial infections of the mammary gland in cows

Naturally acquired gram-negative bacterial intramammary infections (n = 160) were studied in 99 cows over a 2-year period. Escherichia coli, Klebsiella spp, Serratia spp, Enterobacter spp, and unidentified gram-negative bacteria were isolated from 28.8, 39.4, 9.4, 5.0, and 11.2%, respectively, of infected mammary glands. A majority (61%) of intramammary infections were first detected during the nonlactating period. Gram-negative bacteria isolated during the first half of the nonlactating period were predominantly Klebsiella spp, Serratia spp, and Enterobacter spp. Onset of E coli intramammary infections was more prevalent during the second half of the nonlactating period and during the first 7 days of lactation. The majority (59%) of infections were less than 28 days in duration, but Klebsiella spp and Serratia spp infections were of significantly (P less than 0.05) greater duration than infections with E coli. The greatest percentage (47%) of gram-negative bacterial intramammary infections were first detected during the summer.     

Granulomatous dermatitis caused by Mycobacterium genavense in two psittacine birds

Two cases of cutaneous mycobacteriosis in psittacine birds showing featherless, non-painful, non-pruritic nodules are described. Histopathological studies of skin biopsies from both cases demonstrated the presence of a diffuse granulomatous dermatitis with acid- fast organism s inside macrophages, which led to the diagnosis of cutaneous mycobacteriosis. In one case, generalization of the process to internal organs (intestinal and hepatic serosae) was observed. Mycobacterial organisms could not be cultured using conventional isolation media (Coletsos and Löwenstein–Jensen), but polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique performed on pathological samples from both birds revealed the presence of Mycobacterium genavense . It is thus proposed that cutaneous mycobacteriosis infections, in particular those caused by M . genavense , should be included in the differential diagnosis of skin nodular processes in psittacine birds. The usefulness of PCR techniques for aetiological diagnosis of mycobacterial infections is emphasized.     

Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica serotype Typhimurium and Escherichia coli O86 in wild birds at two garden sites in south-west Scotland

Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica serotype Typhimurium and Escherchia coli O86:K61:NM are two bacteria that can cause outbreaks of mortality in garden birds visiting bird tables and other feeding stations. Two sites in south-west Scotland were monitored for the two organisms for 12 months. At site A, large numbers of birds fed throughout the year, and at site B smaller numbers of birds fed only in the winter months. Samples of composite faeces were collected from the feeding stations and screened for the organisms, and any dead birds were also screened. S Typhimurium definitive type (DT) 56 (variant) was found to be endemic at site A, and was recovered from 48 per cent of samples of composite faeces collected from the bird table, from 42 per cent of composite faeces from underneath a hanging feeder, and from 33 per cent of composite faeces from below a roost used by house sparrows; the organism was also isolated from the carcases of six wild birds found dead at the site. In contrast, S Typhimurium (DT41) was recovered only once at site B, from 2 per cent of the composite faeces from below a hanging feeder, and no dead birds were recovered from the site. E coli O86 was not recovered from the faeces collected from either site, but was isolated from a bird that died from trauma at site A.