Soil erosion from a single rainstorm over an area in East Lothian, Scotland

Abstract. An area of about 24 km² in arable East Lothian, Scotland, was examined for soil erosion by water following a severe rainstorm in October 1990. Significant erosion was found in only 10 fields out of 26.5 in an area where topography, soils and cropping suggest a high erosion risk. Doubt is cast on some assessments of the widespread risk of significant soil erosion by water in arable areas of the UK.     

Forestry and soil erosion in Britain – a review

Abstract. Research on soil erosion under forest in Britain is reviewed. Erosion can increase as a result of afforestation in the uplands, sometimes with undesirable consequences for surface water quality. Published rates of erosion are usually close to 'natural' ones, at around 500 kg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹. Of the forest operations that can lead to erosion ploughing is the most important. Clearfelling may also increase erosion, but little is known of its long-term effects. New developments in forestry may do much to reduce the risk of soil erosion, particularly the replacement of ploughing by subsoiling and the control of drain gradients.     

Soil erosion potential of organic versus conventional farming evaluated by USLE modelling of cropping statistics for agricultural districts in Bavaria

Abstract. Organic agriculture (OA) aims to identify a production regime that causes less environmental problems than conventional agriculture (CA). We examined whether the two systems differ in their susceptibility to soil erosion by water. To account for the large heterogeneity within the rotations practised on different farms, we chose a statistical evaluation which modelled erosion using the USLE method from the cropping statistics for 2056 districts in Bavaria (70 547 km²; 29.8% arable). Physical conditions of erosion were determined in a rectangular grid yielding 13 125 grid-cells of c. 5 km² each. For validation, erosion was measured in 10 sub-watersheds on two neighbouring OA and CA farms over 8 years (287 erosive events). On average, about 15% less erosion on arable land was predicted for OA than for CA due to the larger area of leys, although OA occupies areas that are susceptible to erosion more often than CA. The same conclusions could be drawn from the validation data. These data also demonstrated that erosion could be reduced considerably below 1 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ with best management practices under both farming systems. In contrast, at the countrywide scale, cropping did not change adequately with site conditions favouring erosion. The need for erosion control seems not to influence crop rotation decisions on erosion-prone sites.     

Effectiveness of stone bunds in controlling soil erosion on cropland in the Tigray Highlands, northern Ethiopia

Abstract Use of stone bunds to enhance soil and water conservation was first introduced to Tigray, northern Ethiopia in 1981. This study was designed to examine the factors that control the effectiveness of bunds installed on cropland. Qualitative and quantitative assessments of soil loss and sediment accumulation were conducted on 202 plots at 12 representative sites in Dogu'a Tembien district. Mean annual soil loss from the foot of the bunds due to tillage erosion was estimated at 39kgm⁻¹yr⁻¹ or 20tha⁻¹yr⁻¹, a rate which decreased with increasing age of bund. The assessed mean annual soil loss rate by sheet and rill erosion in the absence of stone bunds is 57tha⁻¹yr⁻¹. The mean measured annual rate of sediment accumulation behind the stone bunds is 119kgm⁻¹yr^−1/sp or 59tha⁻¹yr⁻¹. The measurements show that the introduction of stone bunds to the region has led to a 68% reduction in annual soil loss due to water erosion. This reduction is due to the accumulation of sediment behind the stone bunds, which occurs faster in the early years after construction and decreases as the depression behind the bunds becomes filled with sediment. New stone bunds are particularly effective in trapping sediment in transport, but regular maintenance and increase in height of the bunds is necessary to maintain their effectiveness. The average USLE P factor for stone bunds in the study area is estimated to be 0.32.     

澜沧江中下游流域土壤侵蚀时空演变特征

为了探究土壤侵蚀演变机制,以澜沧江中下游流域为研究区域,利用改进的土壤流失方程(RUSLE)模型,开展流域内土壤侵蚀时空演变特征研究,引入随机森林算法探讨了流域内土壤侵蚀因子的相对重要程度。结果表明:澜沧江中下游流域2005—2015年土壤侵蚀量为0～1.89万t/(km²·a),平均土壤侵蚀模数为0.252万t/(km²·a),中下游子流域平均土壤侵蚀模数处于较低风险以上和中风险侵蚀以下级别。自2005年以后,澜沧江中下游流域土壤侵蚀空间分布特征呈现中度侵蚀风险区域扩张,高度和低度侵蚀风险收缩的趋势。随机森林算法结果发现植被覆盖管理因子和地形因子是影响澜沧江中下游流域土壤侵蚀的主要因素,土壤可蚀性因子、降雨侵蚀因子和水土保持措施因子的相对重要程度偏低,均未超过20%。可见,土壤侵蚀的时空异质性主要是由于植被覆盖和地形影响改变了局部气候而导致的。     

Overgrazing effects on vegetation cover and properties of volcanic ash soil in the páramo of Llangahua and La Esperanza (Tungurahua, Ecuador)

Abstract. The páramo is a high-altitude ecosystem of the northern Andes. The vegetation is continuous, with grasses as the dominant groundcover. Because of their high water retention, páramos play a fundamental role in water availability for all the population of the inter-Andean valleys. There are many studies of this specific ecosystem, but very few are focussed on overgrazing and its effect on vegetation and soil properties. Intensive grazing started less than 20 years ago and was studied in a representative area in the western Cordillera of central Ecuador covered by recent volcanic ash deposits. Intensive sheep grazing has led to a strong decline in the number of plant species, the replacement of the tussock grass vegetation by a short carpet grass vegetation, and an increase of bare land. In that area, the upper 50 cm of Andisols are deeply affected by a convergent decrease of Al and Fe oxalate and pyrophosphate in soil extracts, carbon contents decrease from 100 g kg^–1 to less than 50 g kg^–1 in the humid zone, from 70 to 40 g kg^–1 in the dry zone and a reduction of water-retention capacity at −33 kPa matrix potential from 800 g kg^–1 to 200 g kg^–1 in humid zones, from 350 to less than 100 g kg^–1 in drier areas. They showed also a decrease in the macrostructure and the development of a highly water repellent microstructure. All these important transformations favour the development of aeolian erosion in dry areas, runoff on bare surfaces, and gully erosion on slopes. The role of the páramo in water-regulation of this ecosystem seems to have been adversely affected for the future.     

Monitoring of water erosion on arable farms in England and Wales. 1990–94

Abstract. The incidence of soil water erosion was monitored in 12 erosion-susceptible arable catchments ( c . 80 fields) in England and Wales between 1990 and 1994. Factors associated with the initiation of erosion were recorded, and the extent of rills and gullies measured. Approximately 80% of the erosion events were on land cropped to winter cereals. In 30% of cases, the initiation of erosion was linked to valley floor features, which concentrated runoff. Poor crop cover, wheelings and tramlines were also assessed as contributory factors in 22%, 19% and 14% of cases, respectively. In c . 95% of cases rainfall events causing erosion were ≥10 mm day⁻¹ and c . 80% were >15 mm day⁻¹. Erosion was also associated with maximum rainfall intensities of >4 mm h⁻¹ for c . 90% of cases and >10 mm h⁻¹ for c . 20%. Mean net soil erosion rates were approximately 4 t ha⁻¹ per annum (median value 0.41 t ha⁻¹ per annum) and associated mean P losses 3.4 kg ha⁻¹.     

Land degradation mapping by remote sensing in the arid region of India

Abstract. In arid regions of India, cultivation of marginal areas and overgrazing of pastures have resulted in degradation of land. Accelerated wind erosion on sandy surfaces and water erosion on the shallow soils of piedmont areas are both common. Landsat Thematic Mapper sub-scenes have been used to map the type, extent and degree of degradation. In an area of over 5000 km², 42% was affected by wind erosion and 50% by accelerated water erosion. A quarter of the whole area needs urgent attention for soil conservation.     

Long-term application of animal slurries to grassland alters soil cation balance

Abstract. Soil samples from a 32-year grassland field experiment were taken from 0–5, 5–10, and 10–15 cm soil depths in February 2002. Plots received annual treatments of unamended control, mineral fertilizer, three rates of pig slurry and three rates of cow slurry, each with six replicates. Samples were analysed for cation exchange capacity (CEC), exchangeable cations (Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺), pH and Olsen P. Exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) was calculated as a sodicity indicator. Mean ESP was generally greater for slurry treatments than the control, with a trend of increasing ESP with application rate. This was particularly marked for cow slurry. At 0–5 cm depth ESP increased from 1.18 in the control to 1.75 at the highest rate of pig slurry and 5.60 at the highest rate of cow slurry. Similar trends were shown for CEC, exchangeable Na⁺, K⁺ and Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺ and Olsen P. The build-up of soil P due to slurry applications, together with this combination of physical and chemical factors, may increase the risk of P loss to surface waters, particularly from soils receiving high rates of cow slurry.     

湖北省坡耕地现状分析及宜耕性评价

坡耕地是耕地资源的重要组成部分,也是土壤侵蚀的策源地和水土保持的重点区域。为探究湖北省坡耕地资源现状及其宜耕性,利用GIS技术,构建了湖北省坡耕地的坡度、土壤侵蚀、土壤剖面构型和理化特性等数据库,筛选耕地坡度、土层厚度、土壤质地、土壤pH值和土壤侵蚀程度5个代表性指标,采用“限制因子法”对湖北省全域坡耕地进行了宜耕性评价。结果表明：湖北省坡耕地总面积为9 438.64 km²,占总耕地面积的18.87%,不宜耕坡耕地总面积为2 178.36 km²,占现有坡耕地面积的23.08%;砾石含量和坡度过高是造成坡耕地不宜耕的主要因素,其中砾石含量>15%的坡耕地总面积为1 205.72 km²,坡度≥25°的坡耕地总面积为1 097.32 km²;其次不宜耕主导因素是土壤过酸,pH值≤4.5造成坡耕地不宜耕的面积为669.60 km²,土壤侵蚀严重(极强烈以上侵蚀强度)和土层浅薄(土层厚度<30 cm)造成的不宜耕坡耕地面积分别为336.48 km²...     

The long-term effect of tillage on soil displacement of hilly areas used for growing wheat in Greece

Abstract. Tillage displaces large amounts of soil from upper slopes and deposits soil in lower landscape positions, greatly affecting productivity in these areas. The long-term effect of tillage on soil erosion was studied in four field sites growing mainly rainfed wheat. The soil loss from landscape positions with slopes, ranging from 3 to 28%, was estimated by: (a) comparing data of horizon thickness described at the same position at different times; and (b) using soil movement tracers added to the soil. Existing empirical relationships were used for estimating soil loss by tillage and runoff water, and loss in wheat biomass production. The experimental data showed soil losses of 0.4 to 1.4 cm yr^–1 depending on slope gradient, plough depth, and tillage direction. In two of the sites, soil depth has been reduced by 24–30 cm in a period of 63 years. The mean soil displacement of the plough layer (30 cm thick), measured by soil movement tracers, ranged from 31 to 95 cm yr^–1 depending mainly on slope gradient, corresponding to a rate of soil loss of 0.3 cm to 1.4 cm yr^–1. Soil eroded from the upper slopes was deposited on the lower slopes increasing soil thickness by 0.4 cm to 1.4 cm yr^–1. The application of empirical relationships, estimating soil loss by tillage and water runoff, showed that soil erosion at the field sites can be mainly attributed to tillage. The loss in wheat biomass production due to erosion was estimated at 26% on upper slopes for a period of 63 years, while a 14.5% increase in wheat production was estimated due to deposition of soil material in the lower landscape.     

1986-2013年南京市土地利用变化对土壤侵蚀的影响

为了了解南京市土地利用变化对土壤侵蚀的响应,基于气象、土壤、地形、遥感等多源数据,运用GIS和统计方法分析了南京市1986—2013年的土地利用/覆被时空动态变化特征,并运用RUSLE模型定量评估了南京市的土壤侵蚀时空变化特征。结果表明:(1)全市土壤侵蚀呈现先增加后减少的趋势:1986—1996年南京市土壤侵蚀面积增加了132.95 km²,由324.11 km²增加到457.06 km²; 1996—2013年土壤侵蚀面积比从7.46%减少到2.45%,由457.06 km²减少到150.11 km²。空间分布结果表明南京市土壤侵蚀主要发生在生产建设活动较为频繁的丘陵山区。(2)全市不同等级侵蚀面积与对应的侵蚀量呈明显的倒挂现象,较高等级侵蚀区应当是重点治理区域。(3)土地利用类型是影响南京市土壤侵蚀的因素之一,87%以上的土壤侵蚀量动态变化集中在林地和耕地。值得注意的是,水域、居民点及建设用地和其他用地变化对土壤侵蚀无明显影响,而耕地变化对土壤侵蚀具有明显的负面影响,林地和草地变化对土壤侵蚀既具有负影响也具有正影响,以正面影响为主,主要是因为林地既转变成耕地也转变成居民点及建设用地和水域,不同时期其主要影响也不同。综上,该研究结果可为南京市土地资源配置及水土流失防治提供科学参考和理论依据。     

Control of erosion in a mature orchard

Abstract. During 1986 erosion on soil mulched with 6 t ha^-1 of straw was compared with that on soil maintained bare by herbicides in a mature apple orchard. The orchard was on well-drained soil with a sandy loam top on a slope of 2°. Erosion was greatest in the alleys between the trees, where traffic had compacted and smoothed the soil. The mean annual soil loss on bare ground in the alleys was 0.45 t ha^-1; straw mulch reduced this by 85%. Erosion was worst between July and October, when rainfall > 10 mm h^-1 was most frequent. However, differences in soil moisture and resistance to infiltration may have also contributed to differences in erosion throughout the year.     

Experimental assessment of runoff and soil erosion in an olive grove on a Vertic soil in southern Spain as affected by soil management

Abstract. Three different management systems were compared in an olive grove on a Vertic soil, near the city of Cordoba, Spain. Rainfall, runoff and soil loss were recorded from experimental plots of 6×12 m for three years. Results indicated that the no-tillage system, which was kept weed-free with herbicides, gave the largest soil loss (8.5 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) and average annual runoff coefficient (21.5%), due to increased soil compaction, particularly outside the canopy projection area. A system that used a grass cover gave the lowest soil losses (1.2 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) and average annual runoff coefficient (2.5%) due to the protective effects of the cover and increased soil aggregate stability. The third system, conventional tillage, gave intermediate results, with a soil loss of 4.0 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ and an average runoff coefficient of 7.4%. The search for alternative soil management to conventional tillage should consider occasional light tillage to establish a grass cover that would keep both soil erosion and runoff losses to a minimum.     

Methane and nitrous oxide fluxes from a farmed Swedish Histosol

Fluxes of the greenhouse gases methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) from histosolic soils (which account for approximately 10% of Swedish agricultural soils) supporting grassley and barley production in Sweden were measured over 3 years using static chambers. Emissions varied both over area and time. Methane was both produced and oxidized in the soil: fluxes were small, with an average emission of 0.12 g CH₄ m⁻² year⁻¹ at the grassley site and net uptake of −0.01 g CH₄ m⁻² year⁻¹ at the barley field. Methane emission was related to soil water, with more emission when wet. Nitrous oxide emissions varied, with peaks of emission after soil cultivation, ploughing and harrowing. On average, the grassley and barley field had emissions of 0.20 and 1.51 g N₂O m⁻² year⁻¹, respectively. We found no correlation between N₂O and soil factors, but the greatest N₂O emission was associated with the driest areas, with < 60% average water-filled pore space. We suggest that the best management option to mitigate emissions is to keep the soil moderately wet with permanent grass production, which restricts N₂O emissions whilst minimizing those of CH₄.     

牡丹江市退耕还林对区域土壤侵蚀的影响研究

将GIS与通用水土流失方程（USLE）相结合进行牡丹江市退耕还林前后土壤侵蚀状况分析,评价退耕还林对区域水土流失的影响。研究结果表明:轻度侵蚀面积由退耕前的1 600.12km²减小到退耕后的1 296.41km²,主要分布在西南部宁安地区;剧烈侵蚀由退耕前的3 161.52km²减少到退耕后的672.38km²,主要被极强度侵蚀代替,且集中分布在海拔较高的穆棱北部及林口南部、低山丘陵地带25°以下的旱田及林地上。总体而言,退耕还林工程缓解了区域严峻的水土流失态势,但仍需采取相关配套措施以期彻底改善区域水土流失状况,包括修筑梯田、水平等高耕作及深耕翻作业等,但根本措施在于发展区域经济,调整农业生产结构,保护退耕还林成果,从而实现区域生态经济协调发展。     

鄂西北山丘区水土流失时空格局及影响因子定量评价

[目的]揭示十堰市水土流失时空格局及影响因子,可对该区域水土保持及丹江口水库水质保护工作提供科学依据。[方法]基于2005—2020年十堰市水土流失动态监测数据及监测站点长时序观测数据,探究十堰市水土流失时空变化特征,并借鉴RUSLE模型定量评价其主要影响因子。[结果]十堰市水土流失在2005—2011年处于遏制阶段、2012—2020年处于相对稳定阶段;2020年十堰市中部地区水土流失呈现面积小、强度高的特点,南部三区呈现面积广、强度低的特点,而北部地区呈现面积广、强度高的特点。对于不同土地利用类型的径流小区,裸地小区平均土壤侵蚀模数最高[2 320 t/(km²·a)],随后依次为耕地、经济林和草地小区;3个坡度等级(0°～10°,10°～20°,20°～30°)小区平均土壤侵蚀模数分别为[616.73,1 226.65,2 080.26 t/(km²·a)],表明坡度超过10°后水土流失严重加剧;与天然植被覆盖小区相比,紫穗槐植物篱和土坎梯田小区的水土流失明显减弱,且紫穗槐植物篱的水土保持效果更优;不同土地利用类型小区的土壤侵蚀模数与坡...     

Investigating the spatial distribution of soil erosion and deposition in a small catchment on the Loess Plateau of China, using Cs

An understanding of the spatial distribution of soil erosion and deposition in a catchment is important for designing soil and water conservation measures. Traditional monitoring techniques provide limited information on the spatial patterns of erosion and deposition. The fallout radionuclide ¹³⁷Cs was used to document rates and patterns of soil redistribution within a small (0.17 km²) gully catchment located near An'sai in Shaanxi Province, representative of the Loess Plateau of China. The local reference inventory was estimated to be 2266 Bq m⁻² and the ¹³⁷Cs inventories of 198 soil cores collected from the catchment, ranged from 0 to 3849 Bq m⁻². The coefficient of variation of the inventories of the individual cores was 0.85, reflecting the complex pattern of ¹³⁷Cs redistribution by soil erosion and deposition. Estimates of erosion rates derived from ¹³⁷Cs measurement ranged from less than 25 to 150 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹, with about 70% of the net soil loss from the catchment coming from the gully area. The ¹³⁷Cs technique was shown to provide an effective means of documenting the spatial distribution of soil erosion and deposition within the small catchment.     

Assessment of tillage translocation and tillage erosion by hoeing on the steep land in hilly areas of Sichuan, China

Most of the tillage erosion studies have focused on the effect of tractor-plough tillage on soil translocation and soil loss. Only recently, have a few studies contributed to the understanding of tillage erosion by manual tillage. Furthermore, little is known about the impact of tillage erosion in hilly areas of the humid sub-tropics. This study on tillage erosion by hoeing was conducted on a purple soil (Regosols) of the steep land, in Jianyang County, Sichuan Province, southwestern China (30°24′N and 104°35′E) using the physical tracer method.

The effects of hoeing tillage on soil translocation on hillslopes are quite evident. The tillage transport coefficients were 26–38 kg m⁻¹ per tillage pass and 121–175 kg m⁻¹ per tillage pass respectively for k₃- and k₄-values. Given that there was a typical downslope parcel length of 15 m and two times of tillage per year in this area, the tillage erosion rates on the 4–43% hillslopes reached 48–151 Mg ha⁻¹ per year. The downslope soil translocation is closely related to slope gradient. Lateral soil translocation by such tillage is also obvious though it is lower than downslope soil translocation. Strong downslope translocation accounts for thin soil layers and the exposure of parent materials/rocks at the ridge tops and on convexities in the hilly areas. Deterioration in soil quality and therefore reduction in plant productivity due to tillage-induced erosion would be evident at the ridge tops and convex shoulders.     

Geologic Nitrogen as a Source of Soil Acidity

The origin of highly acidic (pH<4.5) barren soils in the Klamath Mountains of northern California was examined. Soil parent material was mica schist that contained an average of 2,700 mg N kg⁻¹, which corresponds to 7.1 Mg N ha⁻¹ contained in a 10-cm thickness of bedrock. In situ soil solutions were dominated by H⁺, labile-monomeric Al³⁺ and NO₃⁻, indicating that the barren area soils were nitrogen saturated—more mineral nitrogen available than required by biota. Leaching of excess NO₃⁻ has resulted in removal of nutrient cations and soil acidification. Nitrogen release rates from organic matter free soil ranged from 0.0163 to 0.0321 mg N kg⁻¹ d⁻¹. Nitrogen release rate from fresh ground rock was 0.0465 mg N kg⁻¹ d⁻¹. This study demonstrates that geologic nitrogen may represent a large and reactive nitrogen pool that can contribute significantly to soil acidification.