Multiple effects of urbanization on the biodiversity of developing countries: The case of a fast-growing metropolitan area (Concepción, Chile)

Urbanization is increasingly homogenizing the biota of less developed countries. Even though urban sprawl is a worldwide problem, most studies on the effects of urbanization, and the conceptual models have focused on developed countries. South America has not escaped urbanization, and here we discuss the potential impacts of urban sprawl with respect to three ecosystems in the metropolitan area of Concepción, Chile. We consider this area a good model and fairly representative of other cities in developing countries which are also experiencing rapid and uncontrolled growth. We found that the impacts of urban sprawl on biodiversity in the metropolitan area of Concepción differ little from cities in other parts of the world: native ecosystems are replaced by pavements and buildings and what is left of the natural soil is covered with green areas dominated by non-native ornamental species. Wetlands and other peri-urban ecosystems are rapidly being destroyed, fragmented or invaded by non-native species. We found that from a study area of 32,000 ha, there was a net loss to urbanization of 1734 ha of wetlands (23% of the original) and 1417 ha (9%) of agricultural, forest and shrub land cover types between 1975 and 2000. From the total area urbanized (3151 ha), 55% corresponded to wetlands and 45% to agricultural, forest and shrub lands cover types. We see the lack of environmental awareness as a major cause of the increasing deterioration of biodiversity in urban areas of developing countries. More research is needed to fully understand the effects of urban sprawl on the biodiversity of developing countries to include these ecosystems in global conservation strategies.     

Urban drainage systems: An undervalued habitat for aquatic macroinvertebrates

Knowledge about the ecology of urban water systems is very scarce. We assessed the conservation value of urban drainage systems in lowland areas and compared these with similar watercourses in rural areas. A total of 36 water bodies in urban areas were selected to investigate the macroinvertebrate biodiversity in relation to environmental variables. Multivariate analysis of aquatic macroinvertebrate assemblages was used to distinguish urban water types and to link these types to key environmental variables. Several biodiversity indices for urban water systems were compared with those for other drainage systems in The Netherlands. Four types of macroinvertebrate assemblages were distinguished in the urban water systems, differing in environmental conditions and values of ecological indicators. The variation in macroinvertebrate assemblages was significantly explained by nitrate, pH, grain size (sediment composition), transparency, nymphaeid and submerged vegetation. Urban drainage systems can sustain a macroinvertebrate biodiversity comparable to that of drainage systems in rural areas (ditches and canals) and (semi)natural watercourses (lotic waters such as small streams and rivulets) and can even be a habitat for red list species. To optimize biodiversity values, urban water management should aim at lowering nutrient levels, stimulating vegetation (diversity of habitat structure) and increasing transparency, which are key factors for macroinvertebrate diversity. We show the potential conservation benefits of water systems in urban areas, but further studies are needed to investigate the optimal design of cities to include biodiversity as an integrated part of the urban environment, thereby sustaining a higher biodiversity in an increasingly urbanizing world.     

The implications of current and future urbanization for global protected areas and biodiversity conservation

Due to human population growth and migration, there will be nearly 2 billion new urban residents by 2030, yet the consequences of both current and future urbanization for biodiversity conservation are poorly known. Here we show that urban growth will have impacts on ecoregions, rare species, and protected areas that are localized but cumulatively significant. Currently, 29 of the world’s 825 ecoregions have over one-third of their area urbanized, and these 29 ecoregions are the only home of 213 endemic terrestrial vertebrate species. Our analyses suggest that 8% of terrestrial vertebrate species on the IUCN Red List are imperiled largely because of urban development. By 2030, 15 additional ecoregions are expected to lose more than 5% of their remaining undeveloped area, and they contain 118 vertebrate species found nowhere else. Of the 779 rare species with only one known population globally, 24 are expected to be impacted by urban growth. In addition, the distance between protected areas and cities is predicted to shrink dramatically in some regions: for example, the median distance from a protected area to a city in Eastern Asia is predicted to fall from 43 km to 23 km by 2030. Most protected areas likely to be impacted by new urban growth (88%) are in countries of low to moderate income, potentially limiting institutional capacity to adapt to new anthropogenic stresses on protected areas. In short, trends in global ecoregions, rare species, and protected areas suggest localized but significant biodiversity degradation associated with current and upcoming urbanization.     

从城市绿地系统规划看城市水土保持生态建设

随着城市化的不断发展,城市面临各种生态环境问题.城市绿地也经历了从"见缝插绿"到系统规划的转变,涉及城市生态要素的各个方面,也包括城市水土保持生态建设的内容.对城市水土保持生态建设的发展状况以及与城市绿地系统建设之间的关系进行了详细的阐述.城市水土保持生态建设是城市生态修复的主要内容,对城市绿地系统建设提供了可靠的基础,为城市生态系统良性发展作出了重要贡献.城市绿地规划对城市水土保持产生深刻、深远的影响,共同融入城市生态建设的大环境之中.通过城市绿地系统的建立,恢复受损的城市生态系统,恢复河流的自然风貌,净化、美化城市的水环境系统,完善城市景观,保护和发展生物多样性,为城市创建理想的人居环境、推动城市可持续发展奠定坚实的基础,最终实现由"城市中的园林"向"园林中的城市"质的转变.     

Conservation justice in metropolitan Cape Town: A study at the Macassar Dunes Conservation Area

Conservation justice, a concept analogous to environmental justice, suggests that local communities are entitled to receive fair treatment and meaningful involvement in the development and implementation of conservation policy. In this study, of an urban conservation project in Cape Town, South Africa, we contribute to the ongoing conversation about the importance of community-based conservation approaches. Conservationists must work to plan and implement projects in ways that are not only acceptable to stakeholders, but inspire local community involvement in achieving conservation goals. Given its location in the impoverished Cape Flats region of metropolitan Cape Town and its unique ecological and conservation value, the Macassar Dunes Conservation Area warrants a conservation justice approach. We conducted semi-structured interviews with members of interested and affected communities, then analyzed stakeholder perspectives on biodiversity protection, fencing, and informal housing. The results suggest that despite disparity among groups in needs and perspectives, conservation projects have potential to deliver tangible benefits to all stakeholder groups. A belief in conservation is universal across stakeholder lines, but contrasting needs and perspectives of the studied groups lead to conflicting views on important issues of implementation. An understanding of different stakeholder groups’ specific needs and interests is therefore essential for successful implementation of sustainable urban conservation projects.     

城市水土保持立法的必要性与重点

城镇化要坚持生态文明的理念和原则,中央要求加强生态文明制度建设,依靠制度保护生态环境.城镇化进程的加快和社会发展急需加快城市水土保持立法.城市水土保持法规应重点落实城市各功能区的政府水土保持目标责任,建立相关规划的水土保持协调机制,结合城市特点明确重点预防区和治理区,实行最严格的生产建设项目水土保持管理制度,加强城市雨洪和土石方管理,加快水土流失治理与生态修复,实行水土保持监测、公示、公报制度,建立社会监督机制,明确法律责任,增加处罚条款.     

赣州市水土保持与区域可持续发展

随着经济的发展和城市化进程的加快,城市水土流失问题日趋严重,城市水土保持与城市可持续发展已成为我们面临的新的重要课题。赣州市作为全国１０大城市水土保持试点城市之一,其水土流失在中西部地区城市中具有广泛的代表性。     

Turkey’s globally important biodiversity in crisis

Turkey (Türkiye) lies at the nexus of Europe, the Middle East, Central Asia and Africa. Turkey’s location, mountains, and its encirclement by three seas have resulted in high terrestrial, fresh water, and marine biodiversity. Most of Turkey’s land area is covered by one of three biodiversity hotspots (Caucasus, Irano-Anatolian, and Mediterranean). Of over 9000 known native vascular plant species, one third are endemic. Turkey faces a significant challenge with regard to biodiversity and associated conservation challenges due to limited research and lack of translation into other languages of existing material. Addressing this gap is increasingly relevant as Turkey’s biodiversity faces severe and growing threats, especially from government and business interests. Turkey ranks 140th out of 163 countries in biodiversity and habitat conservation. Millennia of human activities have dramatically changed the original land and sea ecosystems of Anatolia, one of the earliest loci of human civilization. Nevertheless, the greatest threats to biodiversity have occurred since 1950, particularly in the past decade. Although Turkey’s total forest area increased by 5.9% since 1973, endemic-rich Mediterranean maquis, grasslands, coastal areas, wetlands, and rivers are disappearing, while overgrazing and rampant erosion degrade steppes and rangelands. The current “developmentalist obsession”, particularly regarding water use, threatens to eliminate much of what remains, while forcing large-scale migration from rural areas to the cities. According to current plans, Turkey’s rivers and streams will be dammed with almost 4000 dams, diversions, and hydroelectric power plants for power, irrigation, and drinking water by 2023. Unchecked urbanization, dam construction, draining of wetlands, poaching, and excessive irrigation are the most widespread threats to biodiversity. This paper aims to survey what is known about Turkey’s biodiversity, to identify the areas where research is needed, and to identify and address the conservation challenges that Turkey faces today. Preserving Turkey’s remaining biodiversity will necessitate immediate action, international attention, greater support for Turkey’s developing conservation capacity, and the expansion of a nascent Turkish conservation ethic.     

Challenges and a checklist for biodiversity conservation in fire-prone forests: Perspectives from the Pacific Northwest of USA and Southeastern Australia

Conserving biodiversity in fire-prone forest ecosystems is challenging for several reasons including differing and incomplete conceptual models of fire-related ecological processes, major gaps in ecological and management knowledge, high variability in fire behavior and ecological responses to fires, altered fire regimes as a result of land-use history and climate change, and the increasing encroachment into forest landscapes by humans. We briefly compare two ecologically distinct fire-prone forest regions, the Pacific Northwest, USA and southeastern Australia with the goal of finding ecological conservation generalities that transcend regional differences as well as differences in scientific concepts and management. We identify the major conceptual scientific and conservation challenges and then present a checklist of questions that need to be answered to implement place-based approaches to conserving biodiversity in fire-prone forest ecosystems. The two regions exhibit both similarities and differences in how biodiversity conservation is conceptualized and applied. Important research and management challenges include: understanding fire-prone systems as coupled natural-human systems, using the disturbance regime concept in multiple ways, dealing with large fire events, using language about the effects of fire with more precision, and researching and monitoring fire and biodiversity at multiple spatial scales. Despite the weaknesses of present conceptual models, it is possible to develop a checklist of principles or questions that can be used to guide management and conservation at local scales across systems. Our list includes: establishing the socio-economic context of fire management, identifying disturbance regimes that will meet conservation goals, moving beyond fuel treatments as a goal, basing management goals on vital attributes of species, and planning for large events including post-fire responses.     

Future habitat loss and the conservation of plant biodiversity

Rapid land-use and climate changes are projected to cause broad-scale global land-cover transformation that will increase species extinction rates. We assessed the exposure of globally threatened plant biodiversity to future habitat loss over the first half of this century by testing country-level associations between threatened plant species richness and future habitat loss owing to land-use and climate changes, separately. In countries overlapping Biodiversity Hotspots, plant species endangerment increases with climate change-driven habitat loss. This association suggests that many currently threatened plant species will become extinct owing to anthropogenic climate change in the absence of potentially mitigating factors such as natural and assisted range shift, and physiological and genetic adaptations. Countries rich in threatened species, which are also projected to have relatively high total future habitat loss, are concentrated around the equator. Because poverty and poor governance can compromise conservation, we considered the economic condition and quality of governance with the degree of plant species endangerment and future habitat loss to prioritize countries based on conservation need. We identified Angola, Cuba, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Laos, Madagascar, Myanmar, Nepal, Tajikistan, and Tanzania as the countries in greatest need of conservation assistance. For conservation endeavors to be effective, the conservation capacity of these high-need countries needs to be improved by assisting political stability and economic sustainability. We make policy recommendations that aim to mitigate climate change, promote plant species conservation, and improve the economic conditions and quality of governance in countries with high conservation need.     

The assessment of biodiversity loss over time: wild legumes in Syria

The conservation community has been set a considerable challenge by way of the CBD (Convention on Biological Diversity) 2010 targets. This may not be achievable by 2010 as demanded by the CBD, but at least methodologies can be assessed with a view to their implementation, so that loss of biodiversity and its inherent genetic diversity can be reduced post 2010. There is therefore a need to develop and implement protocols to efficiently measure genetic erosion and to make the identification of the drivers of erosion clear enabling counter-measures to be taken. In this paper the applicability of the indirect genetic erosion threat assessment for wild populations of rare and endemic Vicia species has been investigated. The method applied was based on the scoring of 18 factors perceived to be threats in the 18 study sites in two regions of Syria. Both temporal and spatial patterns of genetic erosion were considered. The method clearly detected spatial patterns of threat, enabling discrimination between the study sites located in the two study regions. However, no significant variation among the sites within each region was detected, highlighting the restricted spatial resolution of the method. Most importantly the results were in agreement with population demographic change observed, confirmed by a highly significant correlation between the erosion threat score and the relative population size change over the last 20 years. The results confirm the great potential of indirect genetic erosion threat assessment in routine evidence-based wild plant conservation decision-making.     

Determinants of native avian richness in suburban remnant vegetation: Implications for conservation planning

While urban areas are increasingly recognized as having potential value for biodiversity conservation, the relationship between biodiversity and the structure and configuration of the urban landscape is poorly understood. In this study we surveyed birds in 39 remnant patches of native vegetation of various sizes (range 1-107 ha) embedded in the suburban matrix in Melbourne, Australia. The total richness of species within remnants was strongly associated with the size of remnants. Remnant-reliant species displayed a much stronger response to remnant area than matrix-tolerant species indicating the importance of large remnants in maintaining representative bird assemblages. Large remnants are important for other ecological groups of species including migratory species, ground foraging birds and canopy foraging birds. Other landscape (e.g. amount of riparian vegetation) and structural components (e.g. shrub cover) of remnants have a lesser role in determining the richness of individual remnants. This research provides conservation managers and planners with a hierarchical process to reserve design and management in order to conserve the highest richness of native species within urban areas. First of all, conservation efforts should preferentially focus on the retention of larger remnants of native vegetation. Second, where possible, riparian vegetation should be included within reserves or, where it is already present, should be carefully managed to ensure its integrity. Third, efforts should be focused at maintaining appropriate habitat and vegetation structure and complexity.     

Impacts of urbanization on Florida Key deer behavior and population dynamics

Rapid human population growth and urbanization have had a negative impact on species biodiversity. As competition for resources between man and wildlife continues, it is important to understand the effects of urbanization on species. Endangered Key deer (Odocoileus virginianus clavium) are endemic to the Florida Keys which have undergone rapid human population growth and development over the past 30 years. Our study objectives were to evaluate the impacts of urban development on Key deer habitat use, population dynamics, behavior, and body mass. We used data from two comprehensive studies on Key deer spanning 30 years to evaluate these changes. Our results suggest that Key deer have become more urbanized, using urban areas more today than they did 30 years ago. Contrary to our predictions, survival was higher for more urban deer than for less urban deer. Problems still exist with mortality factors heavily impacting some portions of the deer population including lower survival associated with less urban male deer. Analysis of Key deer body mass also was converse to our predictions as deer weights appear to have increased over time. Collectively, our results suggest that over the past 30 years Key deer have become more urbanized and that deer plasticity has allowed them to adapt and persist in an urbanizing environment. However, the future ability of Key deer to persist in an environment with continued urban development is unknown. At some threshold, urban development would become unsustainable and unlike other forms of habitat change or environmental disturbances, urban development is in most cases irreversible requiring careful planning in habitat conservation strategies.     

加强领导 加大投入 实现黄河中游水土保持的快速发展

<正> 1 1996年黄河中游水土保持工作的新进展1996年第三次会议后,国家计委和水利部为黄河中游水土保持落实了3000万元的治理经费,启动了黄河中游水土保持工程项目,开展了56个水土保持重点县建设.这批新上的重点县连同近年来陆续实施的世界银行贷款项     

CITES, sustainable use of wild species and incentive-driven conservation in developing countries, with an emphasis on southern Africa

Over 30,000 species of animals and plants that are, or may be, detrimentally affected by international trade are listed on the Appendices of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES). The Convention aims to regulate transboundary trade in species and their derivatives through a system of permits and certificates, and to ensure that such trade conforms to the principle of sustainability. In the developing world, a considerable component of its biodiversity lives outside protected areas where governments have limited potential to manage wildlife. Based on selected vertebrate and plant species, this paper concludes that: (1) use of wildlife in developing countries is more likely to be an imperative rather than a choice; (2) the legal instruments of CITES have limited capacities to ensure that international trade is sustainable; (3) sustainable use of species is best achieved by gaining the support of affected local communities; (4) community support can be maximized by the devolution of ownership or user rights of species from the state to, e.g., the communal level, and the development of effective economic incentive structures to prevent alternative land-use strategies; (5) countries in southern Africa have pioneered devolution of ownership/user rights to the district/communal level; (6) in combination with effective CITES trade controls, trade opportunities, rather than trade restrictions, are most likely to assist in the development of incentive-driven conservation strategies; (7) to avoid negative incentives and to increase awareness of livelihoods, the international CITES community may need to consider whether CITES Appendices I and II listing decisions should be based not only on biological/trade criteria but also on socio-economic considerations, if it is in the conservation interest of the species concerned; (8) a strategic cooperation with the Convention for Biological Diversity (CBD) could improve strategies for sustainable trade; (9) while incentive-driven conservation can provide significant longer-term potential for the protection of animal and plant species, it may be most difficult to achieve for species whose high-value products have a long tradition in medicinal use and (10) the conditions under which incentive-driven conservation is most likely to promote sustainable use need to be clearly identified.     

长江流域及其西南诸河城市水土保持的经验与成效

1997年以来 ,长江流域及其西南诸河的城市水土保持发展很快 ,取得了有益的经验 :制定科学规划 ,明确防治目标 ;加强领导 ,搞好部门配合 ;广泛宣传 ,增强全民水土保持意识 ;配套法规 ,依法行政 ;加强监督 ,严格执法 ;多方投入 ,建设秀美家园。同时 ,城市水土流失得到有效控制 ;城市生态环境大为改善 ,市民生活质量不断提高 ;城市基础设施得到有效保护 ;城市投资环境改善 ,为经济发展创造了条件。新世纪长江流域的城市水土保持将抓好示范带动 ,认真总结提高 ,以依法编报审批开发建设项目的水土保持方案为城市水土保持工作的核心 ,全面推进城市水土保持的发展     

陕西省城市绿色发展水平时空演变及障碍因子分析

为了深入了解陕西省城市绿色发展状况,为指导陕西省城市绿色发展提供有益参考,构建了评价城市绿色发展水平的指标体系,以陕西省10个地级城市2008-2016年面板数据为基础,运用TOPSIS模型和障碍度模型对陕西省城市绿色发展水平时空演变特征及障碍因子做了分析。结果表明:（1）整体上看,2008-2016年陕西省10个地级城市的绿色发展处于中等水平,演变趋势以波动上升为主。各市水平的提升幅度差异较大,水平演变轨迹表现为多种类型,其中,西安属于高水平稳步提升型,提升幅度达27.7%,榆林属于高水平向较低水平稳步降低型,降低幅度达13.4%。各市之间的水平差距表现出逐渐增大的趋势。（2）2008-2016年,水平处于第一层次的城市显著减少,第二层次的城市显著增加,逐步演变为西安一市独优的空间格局。水平居后的城市主要聚集在关中东部和陕南东部。（3）各市的主要障碍因子在不同年份变化不大,但各市之间比较,各自的主要障碍因子差异明显。从整体上看,第三产业劳动生产率、第二产业劳动生产率、城市每万人在校大学生数量、公共汽车数量以及城市居民人均可支配收入是制约陕西省城市绿色发展水平最主要的障碍因子。     

西安市城市公园树木多样性特征研究

生物多样性的维持是城市公园的一项重要生态功能,在城市环境建设和城市绿地生态效益发挥中具有重要的价值。通过对西安市21个公园40个样方的调查,发现西安城市公园共有57种树木,分属31科46属,本土树种占46.2%,国内引进种占总数的27.2%,国外引进种占总数的26.6%。所调查的21个公园物种丰富度Margalef指数为1.87,多样性指数Simpson指数为0.76,Shannon-Wiener指数为1.66,Pielou均匀度指数为0.80,表现出中等水平的多样性。西安城市公园以引进种占优势的这种树木组成,新建公园的较大树径,主要是人工配置的结果。说明社会经济的发展对城市公园的生物多样性有着重要的影响。     

Conserving forest biodiversity across multiple land ownerships: Lessons from the Northwest Forest Plan and the Southeast Queensland regional forests agreement (Australia)

As the area of the world’s forests shrinks, the management of production forests is becoming increasingly paramount for biodiversity conservation. In the United States and Australia, public debate and controversy about the management of production forests during the later decades of the 20th century resulted in governments adopting sweeping top-down changes to forest policy, with regional forest plans a cornerstone of this process. This paper reviews the biodiversity conservation outcomes of two such processes, the Southeast Queensland Forests Agreement (Australia) and the Northwest Forest Plan (United States). Several key lessons are identified. First, these plans are significant steps forward in the struggle to conserve forest biodiversity while providing for production of timber. Second, expanding the conservation reserve system by itself does not necessarily ensure biodiversity conservation, especially if reserves are traded off for increased timber harvesting in forests outside of reserves or if certain important elements of biodiversity are not accounted for either by conservation forests or production forests. Third, reserves often need active management to restore diversity in previously-logged forests and reduce fuels that have accumulated as a result of fire exclusion. Fourth, the current plans fall short of the comprehensive whole-of-landscape, multiple-ownership approach needed to support long-term sustainable forestry and biodiversity conservation. Fifth, adaptive management was not adequately institutionalized and sometimes misapplied, although, in the case of the Pacific Northwest, a major regional monitoring strategy was developed and partially implemented. Finally, ecological science suffered in the collision with the socio-political decision-making process due to the limited scope that was left for testing and evaluating the new approaches to forest management. We conclude, based on the evaluation of the two regional plans, that regional biodiversity conservation goals may be better achieved by implementing sustainable forest management practices across all ownerships and involving all stakeholders and the broader community.