Soil penetration resistance and tree root development

Current UK guidance suggests that a 'rootable' soil profile of at least 1.0 m depth should be sufficient to allow adequate rooting of the majority of tree species in a range of soil types and climatic conditions [Arboricultural Journal (1995) vol. 19, 19–27]. However, there is some uncertainty as to what constitutes a loosened soil profile in terms of penetration resistance. In this study the root development of Italian alder, Japanese larch, Corsican pine and birch was assessed after 5 years of tree growth. These data were compared to penetration resistance measured using both a cone penetrometer and a 'lifting driving tool' (dropping weight penetrometer). Tree root number and percentage were significantly reduced by increasing soil penetration resistance measured with both the cone penetrometer ( P  <   0.050) and the 'lifting driving tool' ( P  =   0.011 and 0.008 respectively). The vast majority of roots were recorded in soils with a penetration resistance of less than 3 MPa (90.7%) with a significant amount in the less than 2 MPa class (70.2%). Root development of Italian alder, Japanese larch and birch all showed a similar pattern, but Corsican pine appeared to be capable of rooting into more compact soils. The 'lifting driving tool' can be used as an alternative measure of soil penetration resistance. This equipment is more cost effective, easier to use and capable of measurements at a greater depth than the cone penetrometer. The majority of Japanese larch and birch roots (84.3%) were recorded in soils where it took less than 15 impacts to penetrate one 10 cm soil depth increment. The modelled data also suggest that a penetration resistance of 2 and 2.5 MPa relates to 10 and 15 impacts respectively.     

Effects of experimental soil frost on the fine‐root system of mature Norway spruce

Soil‐frost events may influence the dynamics of fine roots and therefore affect root‐derived C fluxes to the soil. We studied the impact of soil frost on the fine‐root dynamics of Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.) by a replicated snow‐removal experiment in a mature forest in SE Germany. Snow removal in the three treatment plots reduced soil temperature significantly with minima <–5.5°C in the O layer while the snow‐covered control plots never reached temperatures below the freezing point. Sequential soil coring in the O layer at the beginning and at the end of the soil‐frost period as well as after thawing revealed that the soil frost treatment increased fine‐root mortality by 29%. However, enhanced fine‐root production in the snow‐removal plots nearly compensated for the fine‐root losses caused by low temperatures. These findings were confirmed by minirhizotron observations in the O layer and the upper 25 cm of the mineral soil showing that relative fine‐root loss was by far higher in the snow‐removal plots than in the control plots. Compensatory fine‐root production in the snow‐removal plots exceeded fine‐root production in the control plots during a period of 8 weeks after the soil frost application by 39% in the O layer while it was similar in both plot types in the mineral soil. Sequential coring and minirhizotron observations led to substantially different fine root–longevity estimates for the soil frost period. However, in both cases, the snow‐removal treatment was characterized by a significant reduction in root longevity indicating a faster fine‐root turnover. As a consequence, experimental soil frost enhanced the C input to the soil via root death at our study site by approx. 42 g m^–2 and stimulated the C investment towards the root system of the spruce trees due to a higher sink activity.     

芳香族化合物对土壤硝化作用的抑制研究

Aromatic compounds (ACs) in soil can induce competitive inhibition for soil NH₃ oxidation, and nitrification inhibitors can be used to this end. A laboratory incubation experiment was performed with 12 nitroaromatic compounds (NACs), 15 amidoaromatic compounds (AACs) and 20 hydroxyaromatic compounds (HACs) to assess the inhibitory effects of ACs on soil nitrification. Based on these results, the critical and optimal concentrations of ACs were determined for better inhibitory effects. Most of the test ACs were able to inhibit soil nitrification; the effectiveness differed with soil type. Among the ACs, the NACs with m-nitryl, amino or hydroxyl and the AACs with a nitro group or a chlorine atom on aromatic ring or with a p-hydroxyl were more effective. 3-nitroaniline, 4-aminophenol and 3-nitrophenol showed the greatest potential as nitrification inhibitors. The critical concentration of these compounds in brown soil and cinnamon soil was found to be 0.5 mg kg^-1 soil. Due to the toxicity, carcinogenicity and mutagenicity of ACs, further toxicological and ecotoxicological research is necessary before ACs are used as nitrification inhibitors in agricultural and horticultural practices.     

Effects of insecticides on populations of microflora,nitrification and respiration in soil

Abstract

Tests were conducted to determine the effects of leptophos, phorate, terbufos, and WL 24073 {0‐ [2‐chloro‐1‐(2,5‐dichloro‐phenyl) vinyl] 0‐methylethylphosphonothioate} on microbial populations and activities in a sandy loam. A stimulatory effect on bacterial numbers was observed with some insecticide treatments in the early stages of incubation. WL 24073 increased the nitrification of the incorporated (NH₄)₂SO₄‐N. Phorate stimulated soil microbial respiration.     

A proposed use of ion exchange resins to measure nitrogen mineralization and nitrification in intact soil cores

Abstract

A procedure is proposed for measuring nitrogen mineralization and nitrification in intact soil cores. The method relies on ion exchange resins to trap ammonium and nitrate entering and leaving cores of soil otherwise open at the top and bottom. Changes in soil concentrations plus an accounting of ions trapped by the lower resin after field incubations, indicate rates of nitrogen reactions. Using this technique, we estimated net ammonification rates from 0–36 mg N/kg/mo and nitrification rates from 0–16 mg N/kg/mo for the surface of a sandy, low nutrient soil under pine cultivation in north Florida; higher rates occurred after urea fertilization. The procedure has potential advantages over others, but must be more fully evaluated under a variety of conditions.     

A method for obtaining the relationship between the amount of DNA and the fine root weight from mixtures of fine roots and soil particles

Fine root biomass can be estimated from the quantity of DNA of a target plant extracted from fine root samples using regression analysis. However, the application of this method to fine root samples mixed with soil particles (mixed samples) is difficult due to the high DNA adsorption capacity of some clay minerals. Our aim in this study was to clarify the enhancement level of the DNA extraction efficiency of an improved method, and to obtain a regression line between the amount of DNA and the root biomass from a mixed sample with similar reliability as for fine roots alone (pure root sample). We examined the amount of DNA extracted from a mixture of Zea mays L. fine roots and highly adsorbent Kanuma soil using various concentrations of a skim milk solution, which acts as an adsorption competitor for the soil particles during the DNA extraction process. The amount of DNA of Zea mays extracted from the mixed sample using 0% skim milk was lower than from the pure root sample. However, the amount of DNA extracted from the mixed sample increased with increasing concentrations of skim milk, reaching the same level as for the pure root samples and resulting in a regression line that was similar to the pure root samples. Optimal DNA extraction levels were obtained with the addition of 20?µL of a 20% skim milk solution to 30?mg of a mixed sample. We also discuss the applicability of this method to other plant species and soil types.     

Interactive effects of tree species and soil moisture on methane consumption

Methane consumption by temperate forest soils is a major sink for this important greenhouse gas, but little is known about how tree species influence CH₄ uptake by soils. Here, we show that six common tree species in Siberian boreal and temperate forests significantly affect potential CH₄ consumption in laboratory microcosms. Overall, soils under hardwood species (aspen and birch) consumed CH₄ at higher rates than soils under coniferous species and grassland. While NH₄⁺ addition often reduces CH₄ uptake, we found no effect of NH₄⁺ addition, possibly because of the relatively high ratio of CH₄-to-NH₄⁺ in our incubations. The effects of soil moisture strongly depended on plant species. An increase in soil moisture enhanced CH₄ consumption in soils under spruce but had the opposite effect under Scots pine and larch. Under other species, soil moisture did not affect CH₄ consumption. These results could be explained by specific responses of different groups of CH₄-oxidizing bacteria to elevated moisture.     

氮素浓度和水分对水稻土硝化作用和微生物特性的影响

为了明确不同氮素浓度和水分对土壤硝化作用和微生物特性的影响,特别是高氮素浓度下的响应特异性,以红壤水稻土为供试土壤,设置4个硫铵用量水平[0(CK)、120 mg(N).kg-1(A1)、600 mg(N).kg-1(A2)、1 200 mg(N).kg-1(A3)],调节土壤水分为饱和持水量(WHC)的40%、60%和80%,研究了短期内不同氮素浓度和不同水分条件下土壤硝化作用、微生物生物量碳和微生物功能多样性的变化。结果表明:在40%、60%和80%WHC水分条件时,硫铵A2、A3浓度处理土壤硝化率和硝化速率普遍较低,硫铵A1浓度处理硝化率和硝化速率随土壤含水量的升高而升高;同含水量时随硫铵用量的升高而显著降低。在40%、60%和80%WHC水分条件时,微生物生物量碳随硫铵浓度的升高而降低;同浓度硫铵用量水平时,微生物生物量碳的变化基本表现为:60%WHC80%WHC40%WHC。分析发现不同水分和硫铵处理之间存在交互作用。BIOLOG分析显示:不同氮素浓度和不同水分处理,60%WHC下A1处理的平均吸光值(AWCD)和Shannon、Simpson、McIntosh指数最大,其次为60%WHC的硫铵CK处理,而不同水分下硫铵A2、A3处理,其AWCD值和Shannon、Simpson、McIntosh多样性指数都较低,进一步说明过量施肥导致微生物活性降低。不同氮素浓度和水分条件下土壤微生物和生化性状不同,过量施用化肥后将有可能造成土壤微生物性状和生化功能衰减。     

Survival of,and root colonization by,alginate-encapsulated Pseudomonas fluorescens cells following introduction into soil

Summary The survival of Pseudomonas fluorescens cells encapsulated in alginate beads and colonization of wheat roots was studied in soil microcosms inoculated with the cells in alginate beads of varying composition. Cells encapsulated in beads and introduced into a non-sterile loamy sand survived better than cells added directly to the same soil. A recovery/growth step for the bead-encapsulated cells was added before they were introduced into the soil, in an attempt to obtain optimal population levels in the soil. Further, bacterial populations that grew to the highest density in the beads subsequently showed the highest survival levels in soil. The addition of 3% skim milk, or 3% skim milk and 3% bentonite clay to all bead types consistently resulted in the highest survival of the encapsulated cells in soil. Root colonization by P. fluorescens was generally not impaired by the encapsulation in alginate. One week after inoculation into the soil, encapsulated cells in the various bead types were able to colonize the wheat rhizoplane at high population levels, similar to or exceeding those found when free cells were inoculated. In a second root colonization experiment the wheat rhizoplane was also efficiently colonized 7 weeks after the inoculant cells had been introduced into the soil in different bead types. In both assays, the cells encapsulated in beads amended with skim milk plus bentonite clay showed the highest root colonization rates. It is clear, therefore, that alginate-mediated establishment of inoculants can improve inoculant effectiveness.     

The effects of simulated nitrogen deposition on plant root traits: A meta-analysis

Global atmospheric nitrogen deposition has increased steadily since the 20th century, and has complex effects on terrestrial ecosystems. This work synthesized results from 54 papers and conducted a meta-analysis to evaluate the general response of 15 variables related to plant root traits to simulated nitrogen deposition. Simulated nitrogen deposition resulted in significantly decreasing fine root biomass (<2 mm diameter; −12.8%), while significantly increasing coarse root (≥2 mm diameter; +56.5%) and total root (+20.2%) biomass, but had no remarkable effect on root morphology. This suggests that simulated nitrogen deposition could stimulate carbon accumulation in root biomass. The root: shoot ratio decreased (−10.7%) suggests that aboveground biomass was more sensitive to simulated nitrogen deposition than root biomass. In addition, simulated nitrogen deposition increased the fine root nitrogen content (+17.6%), but did not affect carbon content, and thus decreased the fine root C:N ratio (−13.5%). These changes delayed the decomposition of roots, combined with increasing of the fine root turnover rate (+21.4%), which suggests that simulated nitrogen deposition could increase carbon and nutrient retention in the soil. Simulated nitrogen deposition also strongly affected the functional traits of roots, which increased root respiration (+20.7%), but decreased fungal colonization (−17.0%). The effects of simulated nitrogen deposition on the plant root systems were dependent on ecosystem and climate zone types, because soil nutrient conditions and other biotic and abiotic factors vary widely. Long-term simulated experiments, in which the experimental N-addition levels were less than twofold of the average of atmospheric nitrogen deposition, would better reflect the response of ecosystems under atmospheric nitrogen deposition. These results provide a synthetic understanding of the effects of simulated nitrogen deposition on plant root systems, as well as the mechanisms underlying the effects of simulated nitrogen deposition on plants and the terrestrial ecosystem carbon cycle.     

模拟酸雨对亚热带阔叶树苗土壤呼吸的影响

通过利用pH2.5、4.0和5.6的模拟酸雨喷淋乐东拟单性木兰(Paramecia latungensis)、青冈(Cyclobalanopsis glauca)和秃瓣杜英(Elaeocarpus glabripetalus)3种浙江典型地带性阔叶植物幼苗-土壤系统(编号分别为PL、CG和EG),研究了模拟酸雨短期胁迫对土壤呼吸的影响。结果表明:(1)不同生长季,重度酸雨(pH2.5)对PL和CG植物下土壤呼吸E值影响显著,PL均低于对照(pH5.6),CG冬季低于对照而春夏较对照高,EG仅冬季变化显著。中度酸雨(pH4.0)对PL的E值作用显著,除2007年8月较对照高25.3%外,均低于对照。CG的E值于2006年12月和2007年8月分别受中度酸雨的显著影响,12月低于对照,而8月升高至1.96μmol m-2s-1。中度酸雨仅在2007年11月使EG的E值显著降低了18.0%。(2)在生长周期内,PL和EG的土壤呼吸对模拟酸雨无显著响应,CG虽分别升高了87.8%(重度酸雨组)和11.1%(中度酸雨组),但是仅重度酸雨作用显著。(3)影响PL及CG土壤呼吸的主要因素是土壤温度和模拟酸雨,EG以土壤温度为主因子。模拟酸雨对CG土壤呼吸的作用强于PL,CG土壤呼吸E值与酸雨pH负相关。     

发酵牛粪对苏丹草根系丛枝菌根（AM）真菌侵染及磷吸收效率的影响

通过温室盆栽试验,研究接种苏格兰球囊霉(Glomus caledonium)条件下添加不同比例发酵牛粪(0.33%、0.50%和1.00%)对苏丹草(Sorghum sudanense)根系丛枝菌根(AM)真菌侵染率、土壤孢子密度、植株生物量与根冠比及根系磷(P)吸收效率的影响。结果发现,与对照相比,接种AM真菌处理植株地上部生物量趋于下降、根冠比显著提高(p<0.05),在此基础上添加0.33%或0.50%发酵牛粪处理土壤孢子密度、植株根系生物量和AM真菌侵染率均趋于升高,根冠比没有明显变化,根系P吸收效率显著提高(p<0.05);添加1.00%发酵牛粪显著提高土壤孢子密度、植株生物量和根系AM真菌侵染率(p<0.05),根冠比与仅接种AM真菌处理相同,根系P吸收效率则达到仅接种AM真菌处理的1.83倍。结果表明,添加1.00%发酵牛粪对苏格兰球囊霉扩繁及其宿主植物P吸收均具有突出促进作用。     

Response of maize and soil microorganisms to decomposing poplar root residues after shallow or homogenous mixing into soil

During re‐conversion of short‐rotation poplar tree plantations back to arable land use, large amounts of tree residues must be incorporated into soil. A 90‐d pot experiment with and without N addition was carried out after mixing the same amounts of chaffed poplar root residues into the pots at 0–5 cm or at 0–20 cm depth. The objective was to investigate whether shallow mixing has positive effects on maize growth, reduces poplar root residue decomposition, and changes the microbial community structure towards fungi. Aboveground maize yield was strongly reduced after mixing of poplar root residues at 0–20 cm depth without N fertilization, but was not affected if mixed at 0–5 cm depth. Neither the mixing nor N fertilization had significant effects on root residue decomposition, estimated as recovered particulate organic matter. The total increase in microbial biomass C and biomass N was strongest after homogenous mixing of root residues at 0–20 cm, but remained unaffected by N fertilization. In contrast, the total amount of ergosterol remained unaffected by the mixing treatments, but responded positively to N fertilization. Shallow incorporation of poplar root residues did not affect the microbial biomass C/N ratio but disproportionately increased the fungal ergosterol to microbial biomass C ratio. Shallow incorporation of poplar root residues seems to reduce the demand for N fertilization of following crops, which should be further tested in field experiments.     

The influence of afforestation and tree species on soil methane fluxes from shallow organic soils at the UK Gisburn Forest Experiment

There is growing evidence that land use is an important factor in influencing soil methane (CH₄) fluxes, and afforestation is viewed as a potential tool for mitigating CH₄ releases from soils. However, the influence of different tree species on soil CH₄ fluxes is not well understood. We measured soil CH₄ fluxes under four tree species and grassland on similar soils at the Gisburn Experimental Forest (NW England) at 2 weekly intervals over 12 months using a static chamber technique. The treatments were Norway spruce (Picea abies), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), oak (Quercus petraea), alder (Alnus glutinosa) and grassland. Positive soil CH₄ fluxes were observed from grassland plots (average 4.6 kg/ha/year) and negative fluxes from all four tree species (average of all tree species ?0.5 kg/ha/year). There were, however, no statistically significant differences between individual treatments. Soil water table depth and moisture content had the greatest influence on soil CH₄ fluxes. It is possible that the afforestation of shallow organic and/or poorly drained soils such as these may have a relatively low capacity for mitigating CH₄ fluxes. Although methanotrophic bacteria may exist (i.e. there is the potential for oxidation), they may not be able to dominate due to their requirements for specific environmental conditions.     

Effects of tree identity dominate over tree diversity on the soil microbial community structure

This study investigated the possible effects of tree species diversity and identity on the soil microbial community in a species-rich temperate broad-leaved forest. For the first time, we separated the effects of tree identity and tree species diversity on the link between above and belowground communities in a near-natural forest. We established 100 tree clusters consisting of each three tree individuals represented by beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.), hornbeam (Carpinus betulus L.), maple (Acer pseudoplatanus L.), or lime (Tilia spec.) at two different sites in the Hainich National Park (Thuringia, Germany). The tree clusters included one, two or three species forming a diversity gradient. We investigated the microbial community structure, using phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) profiles, in mineral soil samples (0–10 cm) collected in the centre of each cluster.The lowest total PLFA amounts were found in the pure beech clusters (79.0 ± 23.5 nmol g⁻¹ soil dw), the highest PLFA amounts existed in the pure ash clusters (287.3 ± 211.3 nmol g⁻¹ soil dw). Using principle components analyses (PCA) and redundancy analyses (RDA), we found only for the variables ‘relative proportion of beech trees’ and ‘living lime fine root tips associated with ectomycorrhiza’ a significant effect on the PLFA composition. The microbial community structure was mainly determined by abiotic environmental parameters such as soil pH or clay content. The different species richness levels in the clusters did not significantly differ in their total PLFA amounts and their PLFA composition. We observed a tendency that the PLFA profiles of the microbial communities in more tree species-rich clusters were less influenced by individual PLFAs (more homogenous) than those from species-poor clusters.We concluded that tree species identity and site conditions were more important factors determining the soil microbial community structure than tree species diversity per se.     

Influence of arbuscular mycorrhizae on root colonization,growth and productivity of two wheat cultivars under salt stress

Two pot experiments were conducted in the greenhouse of the National Research Center, Egypt during 2003/2004 and 2004/2005 to investigate the efficacy of arbuscular mycorrhizae (AM) on root colonization, growth and productivity in two wheat cultivars, Sakha 8 and Giza 167, under salt stress. The extent of the AM effect on wheat development varied with plant cultivar and salinity level. Maximum root colonization and spore production were observed with the Sakha 8 cultivar, which resulted in greater plant growth and productivity at all salinity levels. AM and plant development were adversely affected by increasing salinity. However, the presence of mycorrhizal fungi protected wheat against the detrimental effect of salinity, and stimulated growth, productivity, total crude protein concentration and nitrate reductase activity. The average enhancement in grain yield due to AM inoculation was 76 and 68% at 0.15 mS cm^?1, 93 and 84% at 3.13 mS cm^?1, 130 and 115% at 6.25 mS cm^?1, and 154 and 120% at 9.38 mS cm^?1 salinity for Sakha 8 and Giza 167, respectively. In general, mycorrhizal inoculation enhanced the ability of wheat to cope with saline conditions and using AM inoculants can help plants to thrive in degraded arid/semi-arid areas.     

A method of processing soil core samples for root studies by subsampling

Root studies are generally believed to be very important in ecological research. Soil coring is a valuable approach to root research, but it requires a very large amount of processing time. We present here a method for processing soil cores consisting of the combination and homogenization of several soil cores from a plot, with subsequent subsampling for root extraction. The required subsample size was determined for a topsoil and a subsoil sample from a groundnut field and was found to be 5–10% of the total soil sample. Advantages and limitations of the method are discussed.     

容重对土壤水分蓄持能力影响模拟试验研究

通过人工改变土壤颗粒级配,并设置不同容重水平,测定土壤水分特征参数,研究了容重对土壤水分蓄持能力的定量影响。结果表明:(1)容重对土壤水分特征曲线、比水容量有较大影响,试验土壤各吸力段水分蓄持能力均随容重增大递减,比水容量也随容重增大递减。(2)容重对试验土壤饱和含水量、田间持水量、凋萎系数有较大影响,此3个水分参数均随容重增大递减。饱和含水量与容重呈幂函数负相关关系,田间持水量及凋萎系数均与容重呈指数负相关关系。(3)容重对试验土壤有效水、易效水、迟效水含量有较大影响,此3水分参数均随容重增大递减,分别与容重呈指数、幂函数、对数负相关关系。     

Effects of long-term litter manipulation on soil carbon,nitrogen, and phosphorus in a temperate deciduous forest

Changes in above-ground litterfall can influence below-ground biogeochemical processes in forests. In order to examine how above-ground litter inputs affect soil carbon (C), nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) in a temperate deciduous forest, we studied a 14-year-old small-scale litter manipulation experiment that included control, litter exclusion, and doubled litter addition at a mature Fagus sylvatica L. site. Total organic C (TOC), total N (TN) and total P (TP), total organic P (TOP), bioavailable inorganic P (Pi), microbial C, N and P, soil respiration and fine root biomass were analyzed in the A and in two B horizons. Our results showed that litter manipulation had no significant effect on TOC in the mineral soil. Litter addition increased the bioavailable Pi in the A horizon but had no significant effect on N in the mineral soil. Litter exclusion decreased TN and TP in the B horizon to a depth of 10 cm. In the A horizon of the litter exclusion treatment, TP, TOP and bioavailable Pi were increased, which is most likely due to the higher root biomass in this treatment. The high fine root biomass seems to have counteracted the effects of the excluded aboveground litter. In conclusion, our study indicates that aboveground litter is not an important source for C in the mineral soil and that P recycling from root litter might be more important than from above-ground litter.     

The role of tree leaf mulch and nitrogen fertilizer on turfgrass soil quality

 The influence of tree leaf amendment and N fertilization on soil quality in turfgrass environments was evaluated. Our objective was to assess changes in soil quality after additions of leaf materials and N fertilization by monitoring soil chemical and physical parameters, microbial biomass and soil enzymes. Established perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) plots were amended annually with maple (Acer spp.) leaves at three different rates (0, 2240, and 4480 kg ha^–1 year^–1) and treated with three nitrogen rates (0, 63, and 126 kg N ha^–1 year^–1). Tree leaf mulching did not significantly affect water infiltration or bulk density. However, trends in the data suggest increased infiltration with increasing leaf application rate. Tree leaf mulching increased total soil C and N at 0–1.3 cm depth but not at 1.3–9.0 cm. Extracted microbial phospholipid, an indicator of microbial biomass size, ranged from 28 to 68 nmol phospholipid g^–1 soil at the 1.3–9.0 cm depth. The activity of β-glucosidase estimated on samples from 0–1.3 cm and 1.3–9.0 cm depths, and dehydrogenase activity estimated on samples from 1.3–9.0 cm were significantly increased by leaf mulching and N fertilizer application. Changes in microbial community composition, as indicated by phospholipid fatty acid methyl ester analysis, appear to be due to seasonal variations and did not reflect changes due to N or leaf amendment treatments. There were no negative effects of tree leaf mulching into turfgrass and early data suggest this practice will improve soil chemical, physical, and biological structure. Received: 10 December 1997