Participatory soil and water conservation planning using a financial analysis tool in the West Usambara highlands of Tanzania

Despite decades of soil and water conservation (SWC) efforts in Tanzania, the adoption of the recommended SWC measures by farmers is minimal. In the past, SWC plans did not incorporate farmers' knowledge, and the economics of SWC was not given much attention at the planning stage. This research evaluated the applicability of two tools for participatory soil erosion mapping using farmers' indicators of soil erosion and financial analysis of SWC measures at the planning stage. The two tools were evaluated in Kwalei catchment in the West Usambara highlands, Tanzania. The participatory soil erosion‐mapping tool uses farmers' indicators of soil erosion to identify, classify and map soil erosion at the catchment level. The financial analysis tool involves farmers in a stepwise analysis of the costs and benefits of SWC measures before the implementation. The erosion‐mapping tool increased farmers' awareness on the severity of soil erosion problems, and they realised the need for SWC plans at both field and catchment scales. With the financial analysis tool farmers participated in the cost and benefits analysis and were able to select SWC options that were feasible under their socio‐economic situation. The two tools were able to demonstrate that farmers' participation in SWC planning increases the acceptance of SWC measures because they solve problems that are perceived by themselves. The financial analysis tool demonstrated how farmers could make selection of SWC measures that are feasible under their biophysical and economic condition if they are informed about the costs and benefits. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Participatory soil and water conservation planning using an erosion mapping tool in the central highlands of Kenya

Despite several approaches that aimed at mobilising East African farmers to embrace soil and water conservation (SWC) activities, farmers hardly responded since they were seldom involved in the planning of SWC activities. Two tools that employ farmers' participation were developed and applied at Gikuuri catchment in Kenya. The first tool involved farmers to map soil erosion using their own indicators and determine the soil erosion status at catchment scale. This formed the basis upon which they undertook to plan for SWC measures at catchment scale. Farmers also predicted crop yield losses based on the soil erosion status. Farmers widely approved the soil erosion status map since their own indicators and perceptions were used. The second tool provided cash flow trends for a variety of SWC activities and farmer situations. Farmers can use land with a high, moderate or low erosion status and often have rather different socio‐economic settings. The net benefits over 5 yr for bench terraces, fanya juu terraces and grass strips were illustrated to assist farmers in making informed decisions on SWC adoption. The two tools increased awareness on the need for collective actions among farmers and showed fields that cause run‐on on downslope fields. The improved awareness of erosion problems and the related financial consequences increased farmers' willingness to share the investment costs for cut‐off drains. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Farmers' knowledge and perceptions of soil erosion and conservation measures in the Central Highlands,Kenya

A lack of appreciation of Kenyan farmers' knowledge and their perceptions of soil erosion and soil conservation measures was the reason for low adoption of recommended technologies. This research was carried out to identify the criteria that farmers used to distinguish farm‐types and to use these types to evaluate different knowledge levels and perceptions of soil erosion and existing soil and water conservation (SWC) measures in the Central Highlands of Kenya. Community meetings and semi‐structured household surveys were carried out in a small catchment, with 120 households. Results partly support the idea of using farmer‐developed criteria to distinguish among land managers with reference to a farm‐type classification. Criteria distinguishing three classes of land managers (good, moderate and poor) were significant with regard to the following land husbandry practices: use of hybrid or recycled seed and use of organic and/or inorganic fertilizers. Farmers were aware of on‐going soil erosion and of several erosion control measures. Whereas a majority of farmers preferred grass‐strips as a SWC measures, they did not recognize agroforestry as a form of SWC measure. Farmers perceived that SWC measures could successfully increase crop yields and soil‐water retention, and increase land value. In general, farmers did not perceive that SWC measures successfully prevented erosion phenomena, given the evidence of on‐site erosion indicators. They attributed the continued erosion to high rainfall, steep slopes, lack of maintenance and poorly designed SWC measures. They did not consider poor soil‐cover, up‐down tillage and tall trees to be the causes of erosion. Farmers faced several constraints in adopting SWC measures: lack of labour, tools, capital and know‐how to construct the measures. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Factors influencing adoption of soil and water conservation measures in southern Mali

A soil and water conservation (SWC) extension programme, promoting erosion control measures and soil fertility measures, has been going on in southern Mali since 1986. Five factors that influence farmer adoption of SWC measures were analysed: land pressure, cotton‐growing area, possession of ploughing equipment, possession of a donkey cart and farmer training in SWC. Interviews were carried out with 298 farmers and two to three fields per farmer were visited, in 30 representative villages and 30 villages with high SWC adoption. Correlation, regression and factor analysis led to the following conclusions:

• (1) Farmers in the high land‐pressure area adopt more soil fertility measures.
• (2) Farmers in the cotton‐growing area adopt less SWC measures.
• (3) Farmers with more ploughing equipment adopt more SWC measures.
• (4) Farmers with a donkey cart adopt more soil fertility measures.
• (5) Trained farmers adopt more erosion control measures.

There is a strong correlation between the adoption of erosion control measures and soil fertility measures that could not be explained by these five factors only. This suggests that there are additional factors that trigger the adoption of SWC measures. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

How project approach influences adoption of SWC by farmers,examples from southern Mali

Choices in project approach affect the continuation of soil and water conservation (SWC) after project withdrawal, and thus the sustainability and cost effectiveness of the project. A SWC project was carried out in southern Mali between 1986 and 1998. Its features were the promotion of cheap and simple SWC measures, a participatory village extension approach with limited use of incentives, and the incorporation of the SWC programme in an existing Malian extension service. By 2000, farmers in half the 5000 villages in southern Mali had been trained in SWC. By 2002, erosion‐control measures had been installed in 94 per cent of the villages in southern Mali by 46 per cent of the farmers and in 15 per cent of the fields. Though external donor support has stopped, farmer adoption is steadily continuing and spreading to untargeted villages. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

美国水土保持的特点及对我国的启示

 介绍美国水土流失概况以及水土保持的发展阶段、措施、近期效益、投资变化、从业人员变化趋势和未来水土保持发展方向等。对照美国的情况,对我国水土流失和水土保持现状以及所处的发展阶段进行分析评价,提出了我国水土保持发展的建议和设想。     

Adoption decision and use intensity of soil and water conservation measures by smallholder subsistence farmers in Dedo District,Western Ethiopia

Soil degradation in the highlands of Ethiopia is a serious problem that threatens the sustainability of agriculture. Although efforts have been made to develop and promote several soil conservation technologies, their adoption has not been widespread. This study, based on responses from a sample of 101 households which operate on 204 plots in Western Ethiopia, interviewed in 2003 cropping year, employed a Tobit model to identify the main factors influencing farmers' decision to adopt and intensify the use of improved and indigenous soil and water conservation (SWC) measures. The results suggest that area of cultivated land, land/labour ratio, age and education level of household head and distance of the plot from home and slope of the plot provided statistically adequate predictive power on the use and intensity of SWC measures. These results are discussed and their implications for conservation programs are presented in the conclusion. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Conservation Effects on Soil Quality and Climate Change Adaptability of Ethiopian Watersheds

This study analyzes effects of soil and water conservation (SWC) on soil quality and implications to climate change adaptation and mitigation in the Upper Blue Nile River Basin of Ethiopia by using the Anjeni watershed as a case study site. Disturbed and undisturbed soil samples were collected from two sub‐watersheds of Anjeni: the Minchet sub‐watershed (with SWC measures) and the Zikrie sub‐watershed (without SWC measures). Soil samples were taken from 30‐cm depth from five representative landscape positions and analyzed following the standard soil lab analysis procedures. The results show that soils from the conserved sub‐watershed had improved quality indicators compared with those from the non‐conserved site. Significant improvement due to SWC measures was observed in the soil hydrological [total moisture content (+5·43%), field capacity (+5·35%), and available water capacity (+4·18%)] and chemical [cation exchange capacity (+4·40 cmol(+) kg⁻¹), Mg²⁺ (+1·90 cmol(+) kg⁻¹), Na⁺ (+0·10 cmol(+) kg⁻¹)] properties. SWC interventions significantly reduced soil erosion by 57–81% and surface runoff by 19–50% in the conserved sub‐watershed. Reduction in soil erosion can maintain the soil organic carbon stock, reduce the land degradation risks, and enhance the C sequestration potential of soils. Therefore, adoption of SWC measures can increase farmers' ability to offset emissions and adapt to climate change. However, SWC measures that are both protective and sufficiently productive have not yet been implemented in the conserved sub‐watershed. Therefore, it is important that SWC structures be supplemented with other biological and agronomic measures in conjunction with soil fertility amendments appropriate to site‐specific conditions. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Soil Erosion Assessment in Kondoa Eroded Area in Tanzania using Universal Soil Loss Equation,Geographic Information Systems and Socioeconomic Approach

Soil conservation measures including cutoff drains, tree planting, Crops diversifications and destocking were implemented in Kondoa eroded area (KEA) for decades. This study assessed soil erosion changes in KEA and examined drivers of changes using Universal Soil Loss Equation, Geographic Information Systems and socioeconomic survey. Soil erosion was predicted by using data on soil, digital elevation model, rainfall and land use/cover visually interpreted from multitemporal satellite imageries. The predicted average soil erosions were 14·7, 23 and 15.7 Mg ha⁻¹y⁻¹ during 1973, 1986 and 2008, respectively. The area under very high soil erosion severity that was 30% in 1973, 26% in 1986 and 25% in 2008, whereas the area with high erosion severity was 26% in 1973 changed into 49% in 1986 and 2008 indicating recent stabilization. The area with moderate erosion increased from 15%, 16% and 18% during the same period. Field survey confirms a decrease of soil erosion in KEA compared with the past showing better soil conservation. Age of farmers, long‐term adoption of conservation practices and on‐farm tree planting were found to be the major factors contributing toward reduced soil erosion. Major limitations in soil conservation were poor mainstreaming of conservation activities on local production systems and lack of institutions promoting conservation at the community level. The study concluded that long‐term conservation investment for restoration, protection and socioeconomic support contributes significantly in land rehabilitation in KEA. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

关于我国水土保持科学的内涵与研究领域问题

 根据《中国大百科全书·农业》及《中国大百科全书·水利》中水土保持条目的定义说明中国水土保持科学的内涵及范畴。指出:水土保持的内涵是山丘区及风沙区水土资源的保护、改良与合理利用;水土保持科学的研究范畴包括水土流失规律、水土保持规划、水土流失综合治理技术措施、水土保持管理、水土保持效益评价等。还提出了近期需要特别重视的研究课题。     

A pragmatic approach to modelling soil and water conservation measures with a catchment scale erosion model

To reduce soil erosion, soil and water conservation (SWC) methods are often used. However, no method exists to model beforehand how implementing such measures will affect erosion at catchment scale. A method was developed to simulate the effects of SWC measures with catchment scale erosion models. The method was implemented by applying the LISEM model to an agricultural catchment on the slopes of Mt. Kenya. The method consisted of a field scale calibration based on P-factors, followed by application at catchment scale. This calibration included factors such as saturated conductivity, Manning's n, roughness and slope angle. It was found that using data on P-factors, such models can be calibrated to give acceptable predictions at pixel scale. However, P-factors were also found to vary with land use type and storm size. Besides, more data on the physical effectiveness of SWC measures are needed. At catchment scale, the effect of SWC was found to be different from that at pixel scale. Most SWC were simulated to be more effective at catchment scale, indicating additional infiltration during transport through the catchment to the outlet. However, slope corrections in case of terraces were found to be less effective at this scale. Nevertheless, a simulation for current land use with current SWC measures indicated that these SWC measures decrease runoff by 28% and erosion by 60%.     

关于我国水土保持科学技术的重点研究领域

 在分析中国水土保持科技发展现状问题的基础上,针对土壤侵蚀机制、土壤侵蚀模型、水土保持措施防蚀功能、水土保持的环境效应,以及水土保持关键技术等方面,提出了2020年的中国水土保持科学和技术的重点研究领域和对策建议。     

Financial cost–benefit analysis of bench terraces in Rwanda

Bench terracing has received considerable attention from soil and water conservation (SWC) programmes involved in soil erosion control in Rwanda. It is questioned, however, whether enough attention is paid to the suitability of the soils and to the eventual financial profitability. Terraces may reduce soil erosion and increase production but they should also provide sufficient financial gains at farm level. A plot level financial cost–benefit analysis was undertaken to examine under which social and economic conditions bench terraces are financially viable in Northern and Southern Rwanda. Farmers' estimates of respective costs and potato yields from plots with subsidized and un‐subsidized bench terraces, progressive terraces and plots with no terraces at all were obtained for the analysis. Costs of labour and manure were found to be the most influential for the profitability of bench and progressive terraces. While the cost–benefit analysis, using market prices, showed that bench terraces would be hardly profitable, an analysis with opportunity costs for labour and manure indicated that bench terraces and even more progressive terraces can be financially profitable. Extra measures and incentives may be required to facilitate use of labour and access to manure, as now achieved with the one cow per family policy. This paper suggests that further studies should be undertaken to determine costs and benefits of bench terraces beyond private perspective in Rwanda. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Social psychology predictors for the adoption of soil conservation measures in Central Chile

With low adoption rates of soil conservation measures (SCM) widespread, we examine determinants of current and potential future adoption in the ‘Secano Costero’ region of Central Chile. Randomly selected farmers (N = 140) spent an equivalent of 48 000 CLP/year (∼79 US$) on SCM. Contingent valuation of a hypothesized soil conservation programme revealed a willingness‐to‐pay of 30 610 CLP/year (∼50·4 US$) for future adoption. Social‐psychology variables from Protection Motivation Theory (PMT; response efficacy, perceived barriers) were used to predict current and potential future adoption. Current spending on SCM is influenced by perceptions of (1) erosion problem severity, (2) response efficacy of SCM, (3) farming problems and (4) barriers (lack of labour and draught animals). In addition, farm size and education were significant predictors. Willingness‐to‐pay for future adoption of SCM is influenced by farmer perception of (1) response efficacy of SCM, and (2) community support to the programme as well as farm size, age and gender. Our results suggest that formal psychometric scale development for social‐psychology predictors for the adoption of SCM, e.g. based on PMT, is a promising avenue for the analysis of soil conservation decisions. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

西北地区水土保持投资及其对农村经济的影响分析

黄土高原沟壑区王东沟小流域25户农户监测资料表明,经过20 a 水土保持综合治理,小流域土地利用结构趋于合理,农业产业结构得到优化,农户的经营行为促进了农村经济的快速发展,农民人均纯收入不断增加,初步建立起了高效、稳定的农业生态经济系统.根据25户农户经济发展过程的分析,建议黄土高原沟壑区同类型地区发展中需注意如下问题:加大科学技术投入,包括合理利用资源,发展特色产业;加强农民文化素质培养;发挥政府职能作用等.     

北京市门头沟地区不同水土保持措施的减水减沙效益

[目的]评价北京市门头沟区水土保持措施的减水减沙效益,为区域水土保持措施的环境效益评估和土壤侵蚀预报参数选择提供依据。[方法]根据2005—2009年北京市门头沟区龙凤岭水土保持科技示范园内8个径流小区的产流产沙数据,对不同水保措施的蓄水减沙效益进行分析。[结果]坡长不同的径流小区年径流深和土壤侵蚀模数差异显著;梯田和树盘都具有很好的水土保持效益,其减水效益分别达到77.6%和81.0%,减沙效益分别达到84.3%和77.4%;梯田和树盘的影响因子分别为0.17和0.23,玉米、大豆和京白梨的影响因子分别为0.97,0.35和0.85。[结论]研究区内工程措施较植物措施具有更好的水土保持效益,且两者相结合的水土保持效益最佳。     

Farmer perception of soil erosion and investment in soil conservation measures: emerging evidence from northern Taraba State,Nigeria

To combat soil erosion in the northern part of Taraba State, Nigeria, farmers are of major importance. Their perceptions vitally influence the levels of support and investment associated with solving problems of soil erosion through adoption of practices that are alternative to those in current use, including approaches focused on soil conservation. The objective of this study was to evaluate how farmer perceptions of soil erosion influence their investments in soil conservation, particularly soil or stone bunds, their applications of organic amendments and inorganic fertilizers and other soil conservation practices. In the study area, we undertook a field plot experiment and carried out a survey, using open‐ and closed‐ended questions. Water erosion and depletion of fertility were taken as the main indicators of soil erosion. The results of the experiment showed that farmers were aware of and perceived both indicators as having increased over the past decade. Farmer investments in water erosion control (3.7 US$/ha) and the prevention of soil fertility depletion (37.8 US$/ha) in the study area were found to be limited. The results also showed that awareness of water erosion was only marginally correlated with investment in water erosion control (χ² = 4.906, P = 0.09) and not associated with investments in soil fertility control measures (χ² = 0.175, P = 0.92). Those farmers who identified depletion of soil fertility as a problem, based on erosion, were not significantly more likely to make greater investments in soil conservation (χ² = 0.947, P = 0.62) but did invest more in fertility measures (χ² = 3.199, P = 0.20). Hence, further research is needed to determine other factors that may influence farmer investment in soil conservation, especially factors related to socio‐economic characteristics of farm households, institutional and technological innovations and field characteristics that were not addressed in this study.     

甘肃内陆河流域水土保持综合治理效益分析

运用水土保持综合治理效益计算方法（GB/T15774—2008）确定了甘肃内陆河流域水土保持综合治理效益,系统分析了研究区各项措施的调水保土效益、经济效益和社会效益。结果表明:内陆河流域各措施累计调水30.40亿m³,各措施累计保土2.69亿t,调水保土主要来自于坡面措施减蚀效益;内陆河流域梯田、水保林、经济林、人工种草经济效益分别为1.25亿元,195.16亿元,4.35亿元,14.57亿元,合计215.32亿元。通过水土保持措施的布设,治理程度的提高,甘肃省内陆河流域受旱灾程度有了一定的控制,全省年均受灾面积、作物减产面积均呈逐渐减小趋势,并且改善了农村产业结构。