Effects of N fertilizer treatments on biologically active N pools in soils under plow and no tillage

Studies assessing the effects of different tillage and N fertilizer management practices on distributions and amounts of various C and N pools in soil can provide information about the influence of such management on the quality of organic matter in agricultural soils. To assess the influence of management on soil quality, we characterized the organic matter by measurements of total N, organic C, microbial biomass N and active N in the 0–20cm profiles of soil from long-term field experiments containing plots under treatments of plow or no tillage and 0, 135, or 270kgNha^–1 fertilizer. Previous work had established that on the basis of the crop growth requirement of maize, these application rates of fertilizer N provide amounts of N that are deficient, sufficient, and excessive, respectively. The studies reported provide evidence that the sufficient amount of fertilizer N stimulated formation of the biologically active pools of N (biomass N and active N) in soils under no tillage treatments, but the excessive amount of fertilizer N tended to suppress these pools. The results demonstrated that these influences of excessive N fertilization were not reflected in distributions of total N or total organic C in soil profiles but became evident with the measurements of biologically active N. This suggests that such measurements can provide information related to the influence of different management practices on soil quality. Received: 30 November 1995     

Nitrate leaching as influenced by soil tillage and catch crop

Because of public and political concern for the quality of surface and ground water, leaching of nitrate is of special concern in many countries. To evaluate the effects of tillage and growth of a catch crop on nitrate leaching, two field trials were conducted in spring barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) under temperate coastal climate conditions. On a coarse sand (1987–1992), ploughing in autumn or in spring in combination with perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) as a catch crop was evaluated. Furthermore, rotovating and direct drilling were included. The experiment was conducted on a 19-year-old field trial with continuous production of spring barley. On a sandy loam (1988–1992), ploughing in autumn or in spring in combination with stubble cultivation and perennial ryegrass, in addition to minimum tillage, was evaluated in a newly established field trial. For calculation of nitrate leaching, soil water isolates from depths of 0.8 or 1.0 m were taken using ceramic cups. No significant effect of tillage was found on the coarse sand; however, a significant effect of tillage was found on the sandy loam, where leaching from autumn ploughed plots without stubble cultivation was 16 kg N ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ higher than leaching from spring ploughed plots. Leaching was significantly less when stubble cultivation in autumn was omitted. Leaching on both soil types was significantly reduced by the growth of a catch crop which was ploughed under in autumn or in spring. It was concluded that soil cultivation increased leaching on the sandy loam but not on the coarse sand, and that the growth of perennial ryegrass as a catch crop reduced leaching on both soil types, particularly when ryegrass was ploughed under in spring.     

免耕夏玉米施肥方式初探

试验分析了5种免耕播种夏玉米施肥方式对植株体内叶绿素含量、植株形态构成、产量及其形成相关因素的影响。结果表明,不等距间施肥方式效果最好,叶绿素含量达3.94mg/g,不同时期叶面积均最高,有利于全苗壮苗,增强抗旱能力,夏玉米产量最高达7646.3kg/hm²,增产幅度为35.23%。     

Contributions of soil biota to C sequestration varied with aggregate fractions under different tillage systems

It is increasingly believed that substantial soil organic carbon (SOC) can be sequestered in conservation tillage system by manipulating the functional groups of soil biota. Soil aggregates of different size provide diverse microhabitats for soil biota and consequently influence C sequestration. Our objective was to evaluate the contributions of soil biota induced by tillage systems to C sequestration among different aggregate size fractions. Soil microbial and nematode communities were examined within four aggregate fractions: large macroaggregates (>2 mm), macroaggregates (2–1 mm), small macroaggregates (1–0.25 mm) and microaggregates (<0.25 mm) isolated from three tillage systems: no tillage (NT), ridge tillage (RT) and conventional tillage (CT) in Northeast China. Soil microbial and nematode communities varied across both tillage systems and aggregate fractions. The activity and abundance of microbes and nematodes were generally higher under NT and RT than under CT. Among the four aggregate fractions, soil microbial biomass and diversity were higher in microaggregates, while soil nematode abundance and diversity were higher in large macroaggregates. Structural equation modelling (SEM) revealed that the linkage between microbial and nematode communities and their contributions to soil C accumulation in >1 mm aggregate fractions were different from those in <1 mm aggregate fractions. Higher abundance of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) could enhance C retention within >1 mm aggregates, while more gram-positive bacteria and plant-parasitic nematodes might increase C accumulation within <1 mm aggregates. Our findings suggested that the increase in microbial biomass and nematode abundance and the alteration in their community composition at the micro-niche within aggregates could contribute to the higher C sequestration in conservation tillage systems (NT and RT).     

Irrigation and tillage management effects on solute movement

In developing management practices to reduce chemical leaching below the root zone, tillage and irrigation management are important considerations. Two studies were performed to evaluate the movement of bromide in tilled and non-tilled soils under sprinkler versus flood irrigation. In each study, bromide was applied either with an irrigation or presprayed to the soil surface followed by periodic soil sampling to monitor the bromide movement. Tillage was observed to reduce the mean depth of chemical penetration under both irrigation treatments and reduce the spatial variation of bromide concentration under flood irrigation. For example, after 30 days of periodic flood irrigation, 25% of the applied bromide remained in the upper 0.2 m of a tilled soil while in the companion non-tilled soil virtually no bromide remained above this depth. The most rapid bromide movement was observed in non-tilled, flood irrigated soil, particularly when the solute was added with the irrigation. We speculate that the tillage effect of reduced leaching results from the alteration of pore continuity and creation of diffusional sinks and not increased evaporative water loss in the tilled soil. The Root Zone Water Quality Model was calibrated using site-specific hydraulic property measurements and used to predict the solute movement. The model predictions were fairly accurate for the sprinkler irrigated soil but less satisfactory for the flood irrigation studies. In comparing the effect on chemical leaching of the treatments imposed, we found that tillage and the timing of the chemical application had greater impact on reducing leaching than did the method of irrigation.     

Effects of tillage systems on energy and carbon balance in north-eastern Italy

An energy analysis of three cropping systems with different intensities of soil tillage (conventional tillage, CT; ridge tillage, RT; no tillage, NT) was done in a loamy-silt soil (fulvi-calcaric Cambisol) at Legnaro, NE Italy (45°21′N, 11°58′E, 8 m above sea-level (a.s.l.), average rainfall 822 mm, average temperature 11.7°C). This and measurements of the evolution of the organic matter content in the soil also allowed the consequences to be evaluated in terms of CO₂ emissions.

The weighted average energy input per hectare was directly proportional to tillage intensity (CT > RT > NT). Compared with CT, total energy savings per hectare were 10% with RT and 32% with NT. Average energy costs per unit production were fairly similar (between 4.5 and 5 MJ kg⁻¹), with differences of 11%. The energy outputs per unit area were highest in CT for all crops, and lowest in NT. The RT outputs were on average more similar to CT (−12%). The output/input ratio tended to increase when soil tillage operations were reduced, and was 4.09, 4.18 and 4.57 for CT, RT and NT, respectively. As a consequence of fewer mechanical operations and a greater working capacity of the machines, there was lower fuel consumption and a consistently higher organic matter content in the soil with the conservation tillage methods.

These two effects result in less CO₂ emission into the atmosphere (at 0°C and pressure of 101.3–103 kPa) with respect to CT, of 1190 m³ ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ in RT and 1553 m³ ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ in NT. However, the effect owing to carbon sequestration as organic matter will decline to zero over a period of years.     

转变耕作方式对长期旋免耕农田土壤有机碳库的影响

土壤深松是解决长期旋免耕农田耕层浅薄化、亚表层（>15～30 cm）容重增加等问题的有效方法之一,而将长期旋免耕农田进行深松必然导致农业生态系统中土壤有机碳（soil organic carbon,SOC）及碳固定速率的变化。因此,为对比将长期旋免耕转变为深松前后农田土壤有机碳库变化,该研究利用连续12a 的旋耕和免耕长期定位试验以及在此基础上连续6 a旋耕-深松和免耕-深松定位试验,对比了转变耕作方式对农田土壤0～30 cm有机碳含量、周年累积速率及其固碳量的影响。研究结果表明,经过连续12 a的旋耕和免耕处理（2002－2014）,2014年免耕处理土壤0～30 cm有机碳储量比试验初期（2002年）提高38%,旋耕处理降低了30%,而对照常规处理无显著差异。免耕处理土壤0～30 cm有机碳储量比旋耕处理高约2.6倍（2014年）。长期免耕显著提高了土壤0～30 cm的有机碳含量,2002~2014年其土壤0～30 cm固碳量为16.69 t/hm2,但长期旋耕导致土壤0～30 cm SOC含量显著降低,表现为土壤有机碳的净损耗,年损耗速率为?0.75 t/hm2。而长期旋耕后进行深松（旋耕-深松处理）6年其土壤0～30 cm的有机碳含量较原旋耕处理提高32%～67%,且显著提高了土壤固碳量及周年累积速率;免耕-深松土壤0～30 cm的有机碳周年累积速率较免耕处理下降了42%。长期旋耕造成有机碳水平下降的条件下,将旋耕处理转变为深松处理在短期内更有利于促进土壤有机碳的积累,而将长期免耕处理转变为深松措施,降低了土壤有机碳的累积速率和固碳量。     

Effects of no tillage and genetic resistance on sunflower wilt by Verticillium dahliae

From 2001 to 2006 crop seasons three field experiments were run to compare the effect of no tillage (NT) vs. conventional tillage (CT) on Verticillium wilt of sunflower. One experiment had sunflower monocropping (SM) and the others the sequence wheat–sunflower (WS) with 6 years of fescue pasture or seven WS cycles as previous crops. All experimental fields have history of the disease. One cultivar with low resistance was used in SM and two genotype-resistance levels (high and low; characterized by six and eight cultivars each, respectively) in the WS sequences. Leaf mottle severity in all environments, Verticillium dahliae colony forming units (CFU)/g of soil in 2005 or 2006 trials, density of microsclerotia in the stem pith at 0.5 m above the soil line in WS, and grain yield and oil content in WS with fescue as previous crop were recorded. Every year, disease severity was higher in CT than in NT in all trials. In SM, disease severity increased during the 3 years in CT from 58% to 88%, while in NT disease severity remained around the initial level (49%). The V. dahliae-CFU/g of soil after 3 years in SM or three cycles of WS was approximately three times higher in CT than in NT. In WS, density of microsclerotia in stem pith were higher in CT than in NT. In WS with fescue pasture as previous crop, grain yield and oil content tend to increase with NT in relation to CT. The combination of NT and high-resistant genotypes reduced the disease and the production of microsclerotia in stem pith to very low values. NT + high resistance should be viewed as a preventative, not a curative disease management option because the microsclerotia persist in soil for a long time. Therefore, NT + high resistance programs should be initiated early, before inoculum builds up to high levels in the soil. Thus, the combination of NT and high-resistant cultivars promises to be an interesting tool to manage V. dahliae and Verticillium wilt in sunflower and would have potential in other crops like alfalfa, cotton or strawberry.     

利用最小水分限制范围评价东北黑土区免耕和垄作的土壤水分稳定性

为明确耕作方式对黑土土壤水分稳定性的作用,提高黑土区雨养农业对气候变化的适应性,该研究基于黑土区长期免耕定位试验,利用最小水分限制范围(Least Limiting Water Range, LLWR)评价免耕(NT)和垄作(CT)管理下土壤含水率有效性及其变异特征。结果表明:1)在0～5、5～10、10～20和20～40 cm 4个土层中,NT处理显著降低了5～10 cm的LLWR,其他3个土层LLWR差异均不显著;2)在平水年(2014)、枯水年(2015)和丰水年(2016),NT管理下作物生育期内0～40 cm平均土壤含水率正常率分别为48%、72%和85%,年间变异系数为0.23;CT的土壤含水率正常率分别为56%、20%和51%,年间变异系数为0.38;3)在丰水年,NT与CT的平均有效储水量差值最小,NT比CT高8.95mm;在枯水年相差最大,NT的平均有效储水量比CT高13.99mm。因此,NT管理下土壤水分更稳定地分布在LLWR内,在极端降雨年份(枯水年和丰水年)优势尤其明显。     

Organic and inorganic phosphorus in Mollisol soil under different tillage practices

The distribution of soil phosphorus (P) between different organic and inorganic forms depends on, among other factors, the tillage systems. The evaluation of soil P fractions is essential to determine if they are related to available P. The objective was to characterize the P forms from a soil under no tillage (NT) and conventional tillage (CT). Soil samples were taken at 0–5, 5–10 and 10–20 cm depth from a fine, mixed, thermic Petrocalcic Paleoudoll, after 8 years under NT and CT. Inorganic and organic P was measured in the anion exchange membrane (AEM), NaHCO₃, NaOH, NaOH after sonication, HCl and residual fractions extracted sequentially. Microbial P was determined by fumigating with chloroform after P extraction with AEM. The tillage systems did not affect the total P content but the distribution of P among fractions changed between NT and CT. No tillage system had significantly higher microbial P at all soil depths and ranged from 34 mg P kg⁻¹ at 0–5 cm to 10 mg P kg⁻¹ at 10–20 cm. In the upper 10 cm of soil, NT tended to have higher AEM-Pi and NaHCO₃-Pi comparing to CT system. The increase in AEM-Pi was closely related to organic carbon increases and pH decreases. The was a consistently higher concentration of NaOH-Po but the increase was significant al 5–10 and 10–20 cm, and represented on average about 35% of total P. The residual P which was considered mostly organic was also an important pool in both NT and CT, and accounted for about 30% of total P. Therefore, P availability is mainly controlled by organic P which makes up a larger proportion of total P.     

Soil physical responses to cattle grazing cover crops under conventional and no tillage in the Southern Piedmont USA

Grazing of cover crops in grain cropping systems can increase economic return and diversify agricultural production systems, but the environmental consequences of this intensified management have not been well documented, especially under different tillage systems. We conducted a multiple-year investigation of how cover crop management (grazed and ungrazed) and tillage system [conventional (CT; initial moldboard plowing and thereafter disk tillage) and no tillage (NT)] affected soil physical properties (bulk density, aggregation, infiltration, and penetration resistance) on a Typic Kanhapludult in Georgia. Responses were determined in two cropping systems: summer grain/winter cover crop and winter grain/summer cover crop. Soil bulk density was reduced (P = 0.02) with CT compared with NT to a depth of 30 cm at the end of 0.5 year, but only to a depth of 12 cm at the end of 2, 2.5, and 4.5 years. Grazing of cover crops had little effect on soil bulk density, except eventually with 4.5 years of management. Water-stable macroaggregation was reduced (P ≤ 0.01) with CT compared with NT to a depth of 12 cm at all sampling times during the first 2.5 years of evaluation. Stability of macroaggregates in water was unaffected by grazing of cover crops in both tillage systems. Across 7 sampling events during the first 4 years, there was a tendency (P = 0.07) for water infiltration rate to be lower with grazing of cover crops (5.6 mm min⁻¹) than when ungrazed (6.9 mm min⁻¹), irrespective of tillage system. Across 10 sampling events, soil penetration resistance was greater under NT than under CT at a depth of 0–10 cm (P = 0.001) and the difference was greater in ungrazed than in grazed systems (P = 0.06). Biannual CT operations may have alleviated any surface degradation with animal traffic, but the initially high level of soil organic matter following long-term pasture and conversion to cropland with NT may have buffered the soil from any detrimental effects of animal traffic. Overall, the introduction of cattle to consume the high-quality cover crop forage did not cause substantial damage to the soil.     

Influences of tillage operations on soil translocation over sloping land by hoeing tillage

Very few studies have investigated the factors affecting soil displacement and tillage erosion by hoeing tillage. This study adopted a magnetic tracer method to investigate the influences of hoe form and tillage depth on soil translocation over steep hillslopes in Southwest China using a new type of magnetic tracer, i.e., ilmenite powder. Ilmenite powder enhanced the magnetic sensitivity of soil at the end position of tracer distribution, and improved the accuracy and efficiency of tillage translocation measurements. Tillage translocation by wide and perforated hoes was found to be significantly correlated with slope gradient (P < 0.01), however, no significant correlation was found for narrow and bidentate hoe tillage (P > 0.05). Compared with wide hoes, the tillage erosion rates resulting from the use of narrow, perforated and bidentate hoes were reduced by 12.4%, 11.0%, and 16.3%, respectively, indicating that changes in hoe forms resulted in a marked decrease in downslope soil translocation and tillage erosion. Tillage erosion rate decreased by 64% when the tillage depth was reduced from 0.26 to 0.14 m. These results suggest that innovations in hoe form and reductions in tillage depth are important means to manage tillage erosion due to hoeing.     

秸秆施用位置、矿质氮的添加及翻耕措施对只施秸秆的黑土和红壤中微生物生物量碳变化趋势的影响

Quantifying trends in soil microbial biomass carbon (SMBC) under contrasting management conditions is important in understanding the dynamics of soil organic matter (SOM) in soils and in ensuring their sustainable use. Against such a background, a 60-day greenhouse simulation experiment was carried out to study the effects of straw placement, mineral N source, and tillage on SMBC dynamics in two contrasting soils, red soil (Ferrasol) and black soil (Acrisol). The treatments included straw addition + buried (T1); straw addition + mineral N (T2); and straw addition + tillage (T3). Straw was either buried in the soil or placed on the surface. Sampling was done every 15 days. Straw placement, addition of external mineral N sources (Urea, 46% N) and soil type affected SMBC. SMBC levels decreased with exposure durations (15 days, 30 days, 45 days, and 60 days). Rate of SMBC fixation was more in buried straw than in surface placed straw at all sampling dates in both soils. Addition of an external N source significantly increased SMBC level. Soil pH increased in both soil types, with a greater increase in black soil than in red soil. The study could not, however, statistically account for the effect of tillage on SMBC levels because of the limited effect of our tillage method due to the artificial barrier to mechanical interference supplied by the mesh bags, although differences in absolute values were quite evident between treatments T1 and T3.     

Development and testing of a model for predicting tillage effects on nitrate leaching from cracked clay soils

Both water movement and nitrate leaching in structured soils are strongly influenced by the nature of the macro-porosity. That macro-porosity can however also be manipulated by choice of tillage operations. In order to investigate the potential impacts of tillage on rates of nitrate leaching from structured soils, a model specific to these soils, CRACK-NP was developed. The model, its application and validation for an experimental site on a heavy clay soil (Verti-Eutric Gleysoil) at Brimstone Farm, Oxfordshire, UK, is described. The model considers the soil as a series of aggregates whose size is also the spacing of the macro-porosity. Water and solutes move in the macro-pores, but within the peds they move only by diffusion, internal infiltration and root uptake (evaporation). The model reflects the influence of diffusion limitation in the release of solutes to by-passing water. The model was then used to investigate the influence of variable ped spacings which were created by variations in tillage practices. The results both from the model and from the field data demonstrated that finer soil structures, which have larger surface contact areas and shorter diffusion path lengths, present greater opportunities for interaction between peds and the water moving around them, and so release more nitrates through the drainage waters.     

浑水灌溉和有机肥对土壤水分运移、蒸发及淋溶的影响

为揭示浑水含沙率和有机肥对土壤水分入渗和淋溶损失的影响,该研究采用室内一维土柱入渗装置,研究4个浑水含沙率水平（0、4%、8%、12%）和4个生物有机肥施肥水平（0、2 250、4 500、6 750 kg/hm²）对土壤水分运移、蒸发特性及淋溶损失的影响。结果表明：随着浑水含沙率和施肥水平的增大,相同时间内湿润锋运移距离和累积入渗量逐渐降低,且湿润锋运移距离与入渗时间符合幂函数关系。Kostiakov入渗模型可描述浑水灌溉和施肥条件下的土壤水分入渗变化过程（R²>0.9）,随着浑水含沙率和施肥水平的逐渐增大,入渗系数逐渐减小,而入渗指数逐渐增大。浑水灌溉和施肥条件下的累积蒸发量与蒸发时间符合Black和Rose蒸发模型（R²>0.9）,且Black模型的精度比Rose高。与清水入渗相比,浑水入渗可提高土壤中的电导率、有机质含量、淋溶液中的电导率和总溶解性固体物质,同时降低累积蒸发量、土壤的含水率、pH值和累积淋溶液体积。与不施肥相比,施有机肥能减少土壤水分的蒸发,同时还能降低累积淋溶液体积以及淋溶液中的电导率和总溶解性固体物质,增加土壤中的有机质含量和电导率。该研究结果可为浑水灌溉高效利用和合理施用有机肥量提供科学参考。     

Influence of long-term tillage, straw and N fertilizer on barley yield, plant-N uptake and soil-N balance

Long-term influence of N fertilizer, tillage and straw on crop production and soil properties are not well known in central Alberta. Field experiments were established in autumn 1979, on a Black Chernozemic soil and on a Gray Luvisolic soil in north-central Alberta to determine the long-term effect of tillage, straw and N fertilizer on yield and N uptake of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.). Fertilizer N was applied annually at 56 kg ha⁻¹. The 11 year averages of barley yields and N uptake under zero tillage were lower than under conventional tillage. Retention rather than removal of straw tended to reduce barley yield for the initial 6 years and 2 year at Site 1 and Site 2, respectively. A simple mathematical model of average annual plant N uptake and grain yield could account for most of the variation in the data observed at both sites (R² = 0.907; P < 0.01). Final values of soil N, calculated using a mass balance approach, agree closely with values measured at the end of the eleventh year. Conventional tillage and zero tillage, with addition of fertilizer N and retention of straw, were the only treatments with apparent but small net addition of N to soil at Site 1 (40 kg ha⁻¹ and 117 kg ha⁻¹, respectively). At Site 2, only the zero tillage treatment with addition of fertilizer and retention of straw gained soil N (29 kg ha⁻¹). In conclusion, soil ecosystems functioning in subhumid environments with slight to moderate heat limitations such as those in central Alberta can adapt, within a few years, to zero tillage practices with full retention of straw.     

不同施肥措施对旱地玉米土壤硝态氮累积的影响

长期定位试验研究不同施肥措施对旱地玉米土壤(NO3--N)累积的影响结果表明,不同施肥和秸秆还田措施可不同程度造成0~500cm土层NO3--N的累积,且对0~300cm土层NO3--N的累积影响较大。秋施肥秸秆覆盖还田处理产量最高,且土壤NO3--N累积量较低,所造成的环境风险也小,为我国北方半湿润偏旱区适宜施肥措施。     

施氮和秸秆还田对小麦-玉米轮作农田硝态氮淋溶的影响

连续4 a采用渗漏计测定法研究了陕西关中小麦-玉米轮作区施氮和秸秆还田对土壤剖面90 em处NO3--N淋溶的影响.结果表明,NO3--N淋洗主要发生在7、8、9月份或灌溉后,年际间变异较大.监测期内各处理渗漏液NO3--N浓度和淋失量的变幅为0～103.5 mg L-1和0～21.8 kg hm-2,二者均随施氮量的增加呈增加趋势.小麦施氮150 kg hm-2、玉米施氮180 kg hm-2时,连续4a作物均能获得高产.施氮量继续增加,产量不再增加,0 ～100 cm土层NO3--N累积量和90 cm处NO3--N淋失量却相应增加.秸秆还田2 a后作物显著增产,2010年和2011年分别增产15.1％和14.2％,但对NO3--N累积和淋溶的影响不显著.回归分析显示,NO3--N年淋失量和0～ 100 cm土层累积量均随年施氮量的增加呈指数形式增加,说明施氮量越高,NO3--N年淋失量和累积量越高,二者占施氮量的比例也越高.     

Physical and mechanical properties of a clayey soil as affected by tillage systems for wheat growth

Abstract

The effect of tillage systems on soil physical properties of a clayey soil was studied. Tillage systems consisting of conventional tillage I (CT₁), conventional tillage II (CT₂), reduced conventional tillage (RCT), reduced tillage (RT) and no tillage (NT) were carried out in autumn after harvest of sugar beet. Significant differences between tillage systems were recorded on the measured properties, apart from moisture content, at 15–30 cm soil layer. The CT₁, CT₂ and RCT systems resulted in similar penetration resistance and bulk density values below the 15 cm soil depth, while the RT and NT systems resulted in higher but similar values. The mean penetration resistance values were less than 1 MPa in the CT₁, CT₂ and RCT systems at the 0–15 cm depth, while they were 1.41, 1.84 MPa in RT and NT, respectively. The mean total porosity increased with tillage from 8.2 to 28% when compared with NT. The CT₁, CT₂ and RCT systems resulted in lower moisture content at the 0–15 cm depth. The lowest moisture content occurred in RCT (24.4%) and the highest in NT (30.9%), while it was 30.3% in RT system. The lowest and highest mean weight diameter values were reported for the RT (1.36 mm) and NT (2.37 mm) systems, respectively. The lowest wheat grain yield was obtained in NT (4.14) and the highest in CT₁ (5.24 Mg ha^?1). A significant difference occurred between only NT and the other systems. When both grain yield and advantages of reduced tillage are considered, the RT system is recommended.     

Effects of deep placement of controlled-release nitrogen fertilizer on soybean growth and yield under sulfur deficiency

Sulfur (S) and Nitrogen (N) metabolisms in plants are interacted and it is known that S deficiency decrease N absorption and metabolism. In leguminous plants S deficiency also decreases N₂ fixation by rhizobia in the nodules. Deep placement of a controlled-release N fertilizer is a good method to provide nitrogen to soybean without inhibiting N₂ fixation; thus, it was hypothesized that this method is able to provide nitrogen effectively to sulfur-deficient soybean plants. In this study effects of deep placement of coated urea on S-N physicological interaction, growth and productivity in soybean plants were examined using pot experiments. Soybean plants were grown with sulfate concentrations of 30, 100, or 1000 μM, with or without deep placement of coated urea. Shoot weights at the developing stage were not affected by S deficiency. SPAD values of leaves during the flowering stage decreased with S deficiency and increased with the deep placement of coated urea. S deficiency decreased seed weight per plant at the harvesting stage, but this decrease was attenuated by the deep placement of coated urea. N and S content in shoots at the developing stage increased with the deep placement of coated urea, whereas in seeds, only the N content increased. N₂ fixation activity based on the relative ureide-N content in xylem sap indicated that the deep placement of coated urea did not inhibit N₂ fixation activity at the early flowering stage. Without deep placement of coated urea, the relative ureide-N content decreased under S deficiency at the seed filling stage. These results suggest that the deep placement of coated urea is an efficient method to supply N to support soybean yield under S deficiency.

Abbreviations: Deep+: with deep placement of coated urea; Deep–: without deep placement of coated urea