Automorphic soils of the central and southern Timan Ridge

Automorphic loamy soils developing from different parent materials in the central and southern parts of the Timan Ridge are described. Pale-podzolic soil and iron-illuvial texture-differentiated svetlozems are developed from silty covering loams underlain by moraine deposits. Podzolic, iron-illuvial, cryometamorphic, and clay-illuvial horizons are distinguished in the svetlozems; soils with such a complex morphology have been described in the taiga zone of European Russia for the first time. Humus-iron-illuvial podzols are developed from acidic slates. Raw-humus rzhavozems (iron-metamorphic soils) are developed from substrates with the high content of pebbles of mafic rocks. Such soils are typical of the middle taiga zone of Central Siberia and the south of Far East. In the northwestern part of European Russia, these soils occupy small areas.     

Uncertainty analysis of critical loads for terrestrial ecosystems in Russia

The goal of this study is to give a comprehensive and quantitative estimation of the uncertainty of computed in different scale nitrogen (N) and sulphur (S) critical loads (CL) values for terrestrial ecosystems of the Northern Asia, European part and the North-Western regions of Russia. The CL values are used to set goals for future deposition rates of acidifying compounds so that the environment is protected. In this research CL values for terrestrial ecosystems are determined using the expert-modelling geoinformation system (EM GIS) approach. UNCSAM software package is used as the tool for uncertainty analysis. The analysis presented here focuses on the estimation and effect of the input source uncertainties and sensitivities on the CL values in various regions under study. In spite of the region, nitrogen uptake by vegetation, nitrogen leaching from terrestrial ecosystems and the difference between deposition and uptake by plants of base cations (BC) are the most influential factors for all terrestrial ecosystems of Russia.     

Prediction of the thawing depth for artificially drained and cultivated peat soils

The analysis of experimental materials obtained in various regions of Russia and Belarus suggests that the thawing depth of plowed peat soils depends on the sum of mean daily air temperatures after the snow melting. The effect of other factors, including the latitudinal position of particular places, the water-physical properties of soils, and their geomorphic position on slopes of different aspects, is concealed by the major role of the heat flux from the atmosphere. The suggested exponential equation to describe this dependence can be applied for prediction of the thawing depth of arable peat soils in the European part of Russia and in West Siberia.     

Humus Forms in Forest Soils: Concepts and Classifications

The concepts and classifications of humus forms developed since the time of scientific pedology formation are critically discussed. The concept of humus forms (types) relates to the classification of a set of topsoil organic and organomineral horizons, which reflects morphologically distinct phases of plant litter and soil organic matter decomposition, but not to the fractions of soil organic matter. Humus forms reflect various types of transformation and accumulation of organic matter in the soil. The stages of development and modern classifications of humus forms abroad are described. The taxonomy of humus forms in Russian literature and its application for the mapping and evaluation of forest soils are considered, as well as its use for the mathematical simulation of soil organic matter mineralization and humification. Prospects for the development of the classification of humus forms in combination with the basic soil classification of European Russia are discussed. A call for an understanding and a common language in soil science at the international level is underlined.     

Assessment of soil erosion rate trends in two agricultural regions of European Russia for the last 60 years

Purpose

Forest–steppe and the southern forest ecotones of European Russia (ER) are the most productive agricultural areas in Russia. Both climate and land use changes have occurred within the ER during last 30 years. These changes can lead to changes in the timing, magnitude, and spatial distribution of soil erosion rates on cultivated lands. The objective of this research was to assess the trends in soil erosion rates since the 1960s for two agricultural regions of ER.

Materials and methods

Rates of soil erosion were estimated for two time windows (1963–1986 and 1986–2015) within the two agricultural regions. Both regions are characterized by a high proportion of cropland (>?60%), and within each region, one river basin and one 1st–3rd-order agricultural catchment were selected for a detailed assessment of soil erosion rates. Erosion models and visual interpretation of satellite images were used for the evaluation of the erosion rates for the river basins. Sediment budget assessments, ¹³⁷Cs dating, geomorphologic mapping, and erosion models were used for the evaluation of the sediment redistribution for the two time windows in agricultural catchments.

Results and discussion

At the river basin scale, the mean annual erosion rate did not change in the western part of forest–steppe ecotone; however, there was a weak negative trend in the mean annual erosion rate for the eastern part of the southern forest ecotone. A large negative trend in the erosion rate was found for both small agricultural catchments. In all cases, the reduction in the erosion rates was mainly associated with a decrease of surface runoff during snowmelt, as a result of an increase in both the air and soil temperatures during winter season. The soil loss reduction during snowmelt was counteracted by an equal increase in rainfall erosion due to increase of rainfall intensity in western part of forest–steppe ecotone.

Conclusions

Reduction of surface runoff during spring snowmelt was the main reason the erosion rates declined on cultivated lands within the forest–steppe and southern forest ecotones of ER. Evaluation of ephemeral gully erosion rate was not incorporated into State Hydrological Institute erosion model used for the evaluation of the soil losses during snowmelt. This has led to an underestimation of the total soil losses for the 1963–1986 time window for all study sites.

     

Digitized version of the state soil map on a scale of 1 : 1 M: Problems and solutions

Problems of the creation of a high-quality digitized version of the State Soil Map (SSM) on a scale of 1 : 1 M for the European part of Russia are discussed. Sheets of the SSM have been compiled for the entire territory of Russia. For the European part of Russia, they have been digitized, and a corresponding geographic information system has been created. At present, the attribute database to the map is being developed. In the course of the digitization of separate sheets of the map and the creation of a general legend, certain drawbacks of the map have been revealed. They are related to the insufficient completeness of information on the genesis of soil-forming rocks shown on different sheets; to the inconsistency in the names of some soils; and to the use of the same conventional signs for describing the soil texture in the upper horizons and in the parent material, which is incorrect in the case of texture-differentiated soils. The reasons for these drawbacks of the original map are explained. It is stressed that the SSM is a highly informative map that has played a crucial role in the development of pedology and soil cartography in Russia. A digitized version of this map makes it possible to introduce certain corrections to the original map sheets. The essence of the first stage of the work on the correction of the SSM in the digitized version and the methods applied for this purpose are characterized. Problems related to the creation of the database for the digitized version of this map are also discussed.     

Experimentally substantiated equations of the interrelations between the agrochemical characteristics of tundra soils

The detailed analysis of the results obtained in the course of experimental studying of the tundra soils in Western and Central Siberia and in the European part of Russia has revealed the general regularities of the variability and the relationships between the agrochemical and other properties of the soils. On the basis of these data, the calculated methods for the assessment of a complex of agrochemical properties of natural and disturbed tundra soils under different moisture and thermal conditions were elaborated. Among the properties analyzed, the following are important for plant growth: the acidity and the content of humus, organic carbon, total nitrogen, mobile phosphorus, nitrogen, and potassium. The relationships between the soil agro-chemical properties and the plant productivity allowed applying them for the quantitative evaluation of the environmental threat of the soil-plant cover’s degradation because of different predominantly mechanical disturbances.     

Surface wetness duration under controlled environmental conditions

Surface wetness is an important variable for forecasting plant disease. It is commonly measured with sensors, but these provide an indirect measurement and there is variability between different makes of sensors. Consequently, there is no standard for surface wetness measurement. The objective of this study was to derive and validate a physically based theoretical definition of surface wetness for both drops and films drying under controlled conditions. The validation compared observations of surface wetness with theoretical simulations for a range of factors: atmospheric variables including temperature, humidity, net radiation and wind speed; plant physical properties including surface wettability, leaf width and thickness; and initial water distribution including drop volume and film thickness. The drying of drops and films was studied in a wind tunnel and a laboratory setting. Surface wetness duration was most sensitive to initial drop volume or film depth, relative humidity and surface wettability in the case of water distributed as drops. Surface wetness duration was relatively insensitive to other atmospheric variables. Water distribution whether drop or film, made a four-fold difference in evaporation rate compared to leaf width, which was unimportant for leaves larger than 3 cm. The observations were compared to the theoretical estimations using a surface energy balance model. The surface energy balance model is based on a combination equation and a generic transfer coefficient. The transfer coefficient is dependent upon whether the water is present as drop or film and is assumed to be independent of leaf width or drop dimension. Considerations of drop geometry are ignored, although the initial wet area must be known. The theoretical understanding of drop and film drying under controlled conditions could potentially be useful in a field scale model of surface wetness. Since all the factors that influence surface wetness can be explicitly defined, such a field scale model has potential to be used as a theoretical standard for surface wetness estimation. Additional research is required to test this model under controlled conditions of condensation.     

Vulnerability of subsoils in Europe to compaction: a preliminary analysis

Identifying the vulnerability of subsoils to compaction damage is an increasingly important issue both in the planning and execution of farming operations and in planning environmental protection measures. Ideally, subsoil vulnerability to compaction should be assessed by direct measurement of soil bearing capacity but currently no direct practical tests are available. Similarly, soil mechanics principles are not suitably far enough advanced to allow extrapolation of likely compaction damage from experimental sites to situations in general. This paper, therefore, proposes a simple classification system for subsoil vulnerability to compaction based for field use on local soil and wetness data at the time of critical trafficking, and, at European level, on related soil and climatic information. Soil data are readily available ‘in Country’ or from the European Soil Database and climatic data are stored in the agrometeorological database of the MARS Project. The vulnerability to compaction is assessed using a two-stage process. First, the inherent susceptibility of the soil to compaction is estimated on the basis of the relatively stable soil properties of texture and packing density. Second, the susceptibility class is then converted into a vulnerability class through consideration of the likely soil moisture status at the time of critical loadings. For use at local level, adjustments are suggested to take account of possible differences in the support strength of the topsoil and specific subsoil structural conditions. The vulnerability classes proposed are based on profile pit observations, on a wide range of soils examined mainly in intensively farmed areas where large-scale field equipment is employed. A map of soil susceptibility to compaction in Europe has been produced, as the first stage in developing a more rigorous quantitative approach to assessing overall vulnerability than has been possible hitherto.     

Particle-size distribution patterns in Vertisols and vertic soils of Russia

Five variants of the distribution of clay (<0.001 mm) and physical clay (<0.01 mm) fractions along the vertical profiles of Vertisols (slitozems) and vertic soils (slitic subtypes of different soil types) from the European part of Russia are distinguished: (1) accumulative, (2) even, (3) regressive, (4) with a maximum in the middle-profile horizon and with their approximately equal contents in the upper and the lower horizons, and (5) eluvial–illuvial. These distribution patterns are related to the lithological specificity of sedimentation and formation of parent materials composed of swelling clays of different geneses and ages. Solonetzic, eluvial- gley, and solodic processes contribute to the development of the eluvial–illuvial and, partly, regressive variants of clay distribution. All the five variants with a predominance of the even distribution pattern can be found in Vertisols. Most of Vertisols in the European part of Russia have a medium clayey or a heavy clayey texture in the entire profile. The regressive distribution pattern is typical of the group of vertic soils. In the upper horizons of Vertisols, where slickensides do not form, the texture is usually heavier than that in the analogous horizons of vertic soils. The middle-profile and lower horizons with slickensides have similar statistical distributions of particle-size fractions in Vertisols proper and in vertic soils. However, in Vertisols, a tendency for a more frequent occurrence of the soils with a higher content of the clay fraction and with a higher portion of this fraction in the physical clay fraction is observed (as compared with the vertic soils).     

Application and verification of the soil-ecological index for assessing soil cover patterns on plowlands

The reformation of Russian agriculture and the development of landscape-adaptive agricultural systems have generated interest in the agroecological aspects of studying soil cover patterns. The qualitative evaluation of soil resources is necessary for objective comparison of their quality at the landscape, regional, and interregional levels. The applicability of the soil-ecological index (SEI) as an integral criterion for quality assessment of soils, soil associations, and soil cover patterns on the basis of a common all-Russia scale has been experimentally verified on test plots. This index can also be applied for assessing the degree of contrast in the soil cover. The analysis of different soil-climatic regions in the European part of Russia has shown that the SEI value is well correlated with the soil-climatic conditions. However, for a particular farm, the climatic component of the SEI becomes equal for all the fields. At the same time, the soil properties and geomorphic conditions limiting soil fertility are usually different for different soil combinations, and they become essential upon calculation of the SEI for the particular field. Feasibility of verification and correction of the calculated SEI on the basis of experimental data is shown. This makes it possible to find better-grounded decisions on the agrotechnologies applicable for a given field.     

Soils,plants and climate of the eemian interglacial local landscapes of the Russian plain on base of biogenic silica analysis

The Late Pleistocene sediments and soils are exposed in the paleogully (or buried balka) in the Aleksandrov quarry (central part of the European Plain and Middle Russian Upland) The previous Mikulino-Valdai climatic and erosional cycles are illustrated using silica biomorphic analysis. The distributions of sponge spicules and phytoliths have shown dynamic and stable changes during the formation of interglacial pedosediments (OIS 5e). Such changes in alluvial, deluvial and pedological processes formed local landscapes of the European Russia.     

UN ECE ICP Materials: Dose-Response Functions on Dry and Wet Acid Deposition Effects After 8 Years of Exposure

The main results of the International Co-operative Programme on Effects on Materials, including Historic and Cultural Monuments (ICP Materials) within the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UN ECE) are summarised. The 8-year field exposure programme involves 39 test sites in 12 European countries and in the United States and Canada. Dose-response functions (DRF) expressing the effect of dry and wet deposition as individual terms have been obtained for a wide range of materials including bronze, copper, weathering steel, zinc, aluminium, nickel, tin, stone materials, paint coatings and glass materials. The DRF's includes parameters that are easily available on different geographical scales and can be used for mapping areas of increased corrosion rates and for calculation of costs.     

Extent,Environmental Impact and Long-term Trends in Atmospheric Contamination in the Usa Basin of East-European Russian Arctic

Sediment cores and surface sediments from fourteen lakes locatedalong three pollution gradients in the Usa basin, north-east European Russia were analysed for diatoms, spheroidal carbonaceous particles, trace metals and water chemistry. At each site past pH was inferred using a diatom-based transfer function and critical loads for sulphur deposition were calculated using a diatom model. Lakes from the Vorkuta transectcurrently experience the highest levels of atmospheric deposition, however, results suggest that at present day sulphurdeposition levels there is no danger of lake acidification at any of the sites, due to their high buffering capacity. The sediment records show that sites from the Inta and Vorkuta transects experienced higher pollution loads 10–30 yr ago, whencoal production and mining were more intensive. There is also evidence that in the Vorkuta area atmospheric deposition mighthave led to the alkalisation of the lakes since diatom floristicchanges and an increase in inferred pH coincide with the periodof peak industrial activity.     

The Application of Soil-Agroclimatic Index for Assessing the Agronomic Potential of Arable Lands in the Forest-Steppe Zone of Russia

An assessment of the agronomic potential of arable lands in the forest-steppe zone of Russia (by the example of separate soil-agronomic districts) on the basis of the soil-agroclimatic index developed under the supervision of I.I. Karmanov is considered. The agricultural areas (64) separated on the territory of Russia and characterizing soil-agroclimatic conditions for cultivation of major and accompanying crops are differentiated into soil-agronomic districts (SADs) with due account for the administrative division of the country. A large diversity of agroclimatic and agronomical conditions creates the prerequisites for the inclusion of administrative regions into different SADs. The SADs concept implies a detailed analysis of information on the soil properties, geomorphic conditions, and farming conditions. The agronomic potential for major crops in the key SADs in the forest-steppe zone of the East European Plain (Voronezh and Penza oblasts) is high, though it is 25–30% lower than that in the North Caucasus (for winter wheat, sugar beet, sunflower, and spring barley) and in Kaliningrad oblast (for oats). In Western Siberia (Tyumen, Omsk, and Novosibirsk oblasts) and Eastern Siberia (Krasnoyarsk region and Irkutsk oblast), the agronomic potential of spring crops (wheat, barley, and oats) is only utilized by 35–45% in comparison with their European analogues. In the Far East with its monsoon climate and soil conditions (meadow podbels, brown forest soils), the crops characteristic of the European forest-steppe (soybean, rice, sugar beet) and the Trans-Ural forest-steppe (spring wheat) are cultivated. Their biological potential is utilized by only 50–60% in comparison with the European analogues. The materials of this study give us information on the degree of correspondence between the soilagroclimatic potential of the territory and the biological potential of cultivated crops. This is important in the context of improving the natural-agricultural zoning of Russia and its information support.     

Soddy-Podzolic Soils with a Complex Organic Profile in the Right-Bank Part of the Lower Vyatka River Basin

Data on soddy-podzolic soils with the second humus horizon in the southwestern part of Kirov oblast are discussed. These soils were first studied by the authors on mantle calcareous loams of the Yarano- Kokshagskaya Plain in the eastern part of the Central Russian southern-taiga province of medium-humus soddy-podzolic soils of European Russia. The aim of this study is to reconstruct the history of the development of soil properties and soil cover in automorphic landscapes of this region. Morphology, substantive properties of mineral and organic components, soil genesis and evolution are analyzed using a set of physical, chemical, physicochemical, biochemical, and geochronological methods. The results of our study attest to the relict character of second the humus horizon and polygenetic nature of the studied soils. These soils have passed through two essentially different evolutionary stages in the Holocene: the accumulative stage in the first half of the Holocene and the accumulative-eluvial stage of erasing evolution with preservation of some inherited features in the second half of the Holocene. According to their properties, the studied soils are analogous to the earlier studied southern-taiga Vyatka–Kama province of high-humus soddy-podzolic soils of the northeast. At present, plowing of these soils leads to a partial or complete destruction of the second humus horizon; thus, spontaneous degradation processes are complemented by the human-induced soil degradation. A tendency for a gradual disappearance of these soils from the soil cover under the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors has been noted. The materials presented in this paper may be useful for organization of specially protected soil areas in the southwestern part of the Vyatka River basin.     

Modelling of sulfur deposition in the Southern Asian region

Acidification problems in developing countries are expected to become more prevalent in the coming decades. Assessments of means of abatement strategies are likely to become of vital interest. This paper presents some preliminary results of modelling of acidic deposition due to anthropogenic emissions of sulfur in the Southern Asian region. It is concluded that the study has some shortcomings, that has to be addressed in future work, such as lack of treatment of deep convection and that deposition and transformation rates used are not adapted to the tropics. Only very limited validation has been possible due to the lack of relevant measurements. Wet deposition data from rural Thailand are in fair agreement with calculated values. The study is one part of a larger project encompassing mapping ecosystem sensitivity to acid deposition, wet chemistry measurements and atmospheric transfer modelling.     

Analysis of the experience of European countries in soil monitoring

The methodological aspects and practice of soil monitoring in some European countries are discussed. European experience in this field may be useful for Russia and FSU countries, where soil monitoring works are at the early stage of their development. The programs of work, the standards for assessing the state of soils, and the distribution patterns of soil monitoring sites are described. Mandatory and optional (regional) parameters of soils for monitoring purposes are defined. The parameters of natural soils, the first observations concerning the soils studied, and the optimum soil parameters are recommended for their use as standards. The concept of multiple standards expands the potential of the applied interpretation of the monitoring results. The soil monitoring network is established with due account for the natural and anthropogenic conditions. It can be built on a regular or irregular basis. The adaptation of the European soil monitoring practice requires the modernization of the software, mathematical, instrumental, and cartographic support of soil monitoring programs in Russia and Ukraine.     

Direct and indirect air pollution effects on materials including cultural monuments

Damage caused to materials exposed in the atmosphere constitutes one of the most important direct effects of acidifying air pollutants. Systematic field and laboratory investigations performed in the recent decade in many countries have contributed to a considerable increase in the knowledge on the mechanisms of the effects of pollutants, on the quantification of damage and on the assessment of the cost of damage. Beside the very important role of SO₂ for several materials also studies of the direct or synergistic effect of NO_x and O₃ have contributed to the understanding of the complex pollution effects. Even if there are still considerable gaps of knowledge it seems that NO_x and O₃ may contribute in an important way to the deterioration of several materials also in indoor environments which are important for i.a. electronic equipment, storage conditions and museums. Important knowledge has been gained from the International Cooperation Project within UK ECE which is an extensive field exposure on 39 test sites. Dose-response relations have been obtained after 4-year exposure showing the effect of dry and wet deposition on corrosion of several material groups. Also the effect of micro- and mesoclimate on corrosion of building materials like plaster and bricks in different positions on buildings and locations within an urban area has been subject to systematic studies. Results from the studies are used i.a. for assessment of so called acceptable corrosion levels and for mapping areas where the levels are exceeded at different pollution scenarios, as well as for calculation of economic damage. Based on model studies for some city areas tentative calculations of damage cost have been performed for the European region. The indirect effects consist of increased corrosion due to water and soil acidification which are of importance in geologically sensitive areas. Structures which are in contact with soil and water represent a very great capital investment and are of vital importance to the community.     

新疆阿勒泰地区暖季S干旱指数变化特征分析

运用新疆阿勒泰地区1961-2009年7个测站暖季（4-10月）月降水量与无降水日数定义了S干旱指数,采用Mann-Kendall趋势检验法、Morlet小波变换对该指数进行了分析。结果表明：S指数能较好地反映阿勒泰地区的干旱情况。暖季近49a来极端干旱和极端湿润出现了3a和1a;区域中,东部两站无极端干旱年,其它站有极端干旱年;布尔津和吉木乃站有1a和2a的极端湿润年,其它站无极端湿润年。各季中,春秋季分别出现了2a和1a极端干旱年,无极端湿润年;夏季出现了2a极端干旱年和3a极端湿润年;各区域极端干旱和极端湿润年分布较复杂。暖季20世纪80、90年代以湿润为主,其它时间以干旱为主;春季60年代以干旱为主,其它时间以湿润为主;夏季年代变化基本与暖季一致;秋季608、0年代以湿润为主,其它时间以干旱为主。该地区暖季及各季S指数趋势变化不显著。小波分析表明,S指数存在着明显不同的年代际和年际尺度的周期变化。