Chemical amelioration of surface crusting to reduce runoff and erosion on highly weathered soils

Because of the very low soil solution ionic strengths in highly weathered soils, clay particles can be readily dispersed under the impact of raindrops. The clay fraction of many soils is dispersible under the combined effects of mechanical disturbance and low electrolyte concentration. This clay dispersion results in fine particle segregation at the soil surface, with clay particles moving into and blocking soil pores resulting in the formation of a highly impervious crust which reduces infiltration. Because the clay is dispersed, the particles usually orient themselves in a laminar fashion as they settle. As a result, runoff is substantially increased, giving rise to soil erosion. The crusts formed in this manner often have very high strengths which prevent or substantially reduce crop emergence. The formation of such crusts can be prevented by the application of relatively low rates of by-product gypsum such as phosphogypsum on the soil surface which produces sufficient electrolyte in solution during raindrop impact to maintain the clay particles in a flocculated condition. The results of a number of experiments in which different soils were treated with phosphogypsum are discussed to illustrate the effects of electrolyte concentration, level of sodium and other factors on the formation of surface crusts and the consequent runoff and erosion. As a result of the application of phosphogypsum to the soil surface, a laminar orientation of clay particles at the surface is prevented, which allows a much greater proportion of the rainfall to enter the soil. Any crusts formed are thus much weaker and do not reduce seedling emergence. This type of crust formation can also be prevented by reducing raindrop impact through the use of mulches. This phenomenon occurs on many soils not normally considered to suffer from chemically-induced physical problems, which points to the importance of considering chemical as well as physical processes in the evaluation of potential runoff and erosion.     

Interactions between water quality and polymer treatment on infiltration rate and clay migration

The electrical conductivity (EC) and sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) of irrigation water significantly affect water transmission properties of soil. Commercially produced polymers which are soluble in water may potentially mitigate the negative consequences of water quality on infiltration rate. Waters were synthesized to have combinations of EC equal to 0.5, 2.0 and 5.0 dS m⁻¹ and SAR of 5, 15 and 25. These waters were applied through a laboratory scale rainfall simulator to 12 × 20 cm trays containing soil. Untreated and treated waters with 10 mg L⁻¹ concentration of a cationic polysaccharide were used in the study. Untreated waters were applied to uncovered soil or to soil covered with fiberglass sheets 0.5 cm above the soil to disrupt the impact energy. The polymer treated waters were only applied to uncovered soil. The steady state infiltration rates were significantly affected by SAR and EC with the trend toward increasing infiltration rate with increasing EC and/or decreasing SAR under all conditions. Impact energy greatly reduced the infiltration rate as compared to no impact energy. The polymer treatment significantly increases the infiltration rate for each water. The relative beneficial effects of polymer tended to be greater with increasing EC and/or decreasing SAR. The clay in runoff and leachate had several significant interactions between waters and treatments. Treatments that tended to produce more fine particulates leading to crust formation and reduced infiltration rate tended to have less clay in the runoff and leachate. Apparently crust formation partially inhibits clay migration.     

Influence of a polyacrylamide soil conditioner on runoff generation and soil erosion: Field tests in Baringo District,Kenya

Following promising laboratory results the effect of low concentration applications of a polyacrylamide soil conditioner SEPARAN AP30 on soil properties was tested under field conditions in a severely degraded semi-arid region in northern Kenya. Tests of conditioner performance on tilled and undisturbed soils were carried out under simulated rainfall on crusting Eutric or Calcaric Fluvisols at two sites on alluviolacustrine flats adjacent to Lake Baringo. Tests were carried out in two series separated by up to six weeks of sunshine and natural rainfall, to determine the longevity and residual effects of conditioner application.Runoff generation and soil loss were significantly reduced on all runoff plots during the first rainfall simulation, but the most dramatic results occurred when conditioner application was combined with raking. This inhibited crust development and virtually eliminated runoff and soil loss. Under natural weathering, surface crust had developed on all plots before the second rainfall simulations. Some residual effects of the conditioner on infiltration rates were still noted, but the residual effect on soil loss was greatly diminished.The tests indicate that low concentration applications of SEPARAN are not useful on undisturbed soils, but can provide useful temporary reductions in sheet and rillwash hazard when combined with tillage and could be effectively combined with grass re-seeding for more permanent reclamation.     

Long-term effects of lime and phosphogypsum application on tropical no-till soybean–oat–sorghum rotation and soil chemical properties

Root growth, nutrition and crop yield can be affected by soil chemical modifications caused by superficial limestone and phosphogypsum application in a no-till system. Using this approach, this study was conducted in southeastern Brazil, continuing an experiment that has been on-going since 2002 with the objective of evaluating the residual effects of the surface application of lime and phosphogypsum on the soil chemical characteristics and the root growth, nutrition and yield of soybean, black oat and sorghum in a dry winter region cultivated in 2008/2009 and 2009/2010. The experimental design was a randomized block with 4 replications. The treatments were applied in November 2004 and were as follows: original conditions, limestone application (2000 kg ha⁻¹), phosphogypsum application (2100 kg ha⁻¹), and limestone (2000 kg ha⁻¹) + phosphogypsum (2100 kg ha⁻¹) application. Superficial liming with or without phosphogypsum reduced the surface and subsurface soil acidity 5 years after application in the no-till system. The movement of Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ from the surface layer into the subsoil over time was evident. The phosphogypsum application associated with liming increased the Ca²⁺ levels throughout the soil profile. Liming maintained high levels of Mg²⁺ throughout the soil profile with or without phosphogypsum application. The organic matter content increased with liming with or without phosphogypsum, indicating that in the long term, these practices can increase the C accumulation. Phosphogypsum application had a residual effect on the SO₄-S levels, and high sulphate concentrations were observed in the subsoil after 5 years. Superficial liming improved crop nutrition and, when associated with phosphogypsum, increased Ca absorption by soybean and sorghum, as reflected in the increased yields of these crops.     

云南磷石膏堆存对区域水环境的影响研究

伴随着磷肥产量增加,磷石膏产排量对环境污染等问题愈加突出。为解决磷石膏堆放对环境造成的威胁和磷石膏的资源化利用,本研究通过对云南省磷矿资源主要集中地磷石膏堆场的实地调查、采样并结合模拟试验、建立预测模型等方法,明确磷石膏对区域水体环境介质存在的影响。结论如下：（1）不同堆存点磷石膏均呈酸性。滇池流域的磷石膏含磷量较高、抚仙湖流域的磷石膏含氟量较高。（2）通过地表径流试验,地表水总磷和氟化物的含量基本呈现随迁移距离增加而不断下降的趋势。并建立地表水污染物沿程迁移变化回归模型。地表径流中总磷和氟化物分别迁移至距堆场186.45 m和167.30 m外,可达到地表Ⅲ类水标准。（3）通过土柱淋溶试验,淋出液中总磷含量随淋溶次数的增加整体呈下降的趋势。不同土柱淋出液中氟含量呈现正相关的变化趋势,除个别土柱淋出液外,其他深度的淋出液氟含量在0.15～0.45 mg/L范围之内,可达到地下水的Ⅰ类至Ⅲ类标准。本研究为解决磷矿区乃至流域内磷石膏对水环境等造成的污染负荷问题,提供定量化的理论基础。     

磷石膏和有机肥对盐碱地糜子产量和叶片生理特性的影响

为探索磷石膏和有机肥对盐碱地糜子产量和叶片生理特性的影响,本试验以粘丰5号和内糜8号为试验材料,本研究以‘粘丰5号’和‘内糜8号’为试验材料,在大田条件下设置了4个处理,包括磷石膏（60 t/hm2）、有机肥（187.50 t/hm2）和磷石膏有机肥混合（60 t/hm2磷石膏+187.50 t/hm2有机肥）,以盐碱地未改良作为对照。结果表明：有机肥和磷石膏混合处理对两个糜子品种叶片糖分积累调控效果存在差异,对粘丰5号开花后14d的叶片蔗糖含量、可溶性糖含量促进效果较优,而对内糜8号开花后21d的叶片蔗糖含量、可溶性糖含量促进效果较优;粘丰5号整个测定时期叶片淀粉含量在磷石膏和有机肥混合处理、有机肥处理下基本上低于磷石膏处理,而内糜8号叶片淀粉含量在开花后7d~21d以磷石膏处理为最高,之后,以磷石膏处理为最低;开花后42d叶片可溶性蛋白含量在粘丰5号中以磷石膏有机肥混施处理最高,而在内糜8号中以单施有机肥处理为最高。三种盐碱地改良措施均能够增加糜子产量,其中以磷石膏和有机肥混合处理下的增加效果优于单施磷石膏和单施有机肥处理。     

Surface seal micromorphology as affected by fluidized bed combustion bottom-ash

Amendments that alter clay dispersion and aggregate disintegration also change soil porosity and sealing. Soils selected for this study had increased (Mollisol, Oxisol, and Vertisol), decreased (Oxisol), or non-affected (Oxisol and Ultisol) water infiltration when fluidized bed combustor bottom-ash (FBCBA) was surface applied to decrease dispersion. Soil was sieved to pass 8-mm, packed into small erosion pans, prewetted by capillarity, and subjected to 110 mm h⁻¹ simulated rain until steady state infiltration. Image analysis was used to quantify crust morphology, porosity and characteristics of the seal and the unsealed soil below it. A conspicuous feature was a structural crust at the surface with a continuous dense layer of lesser porosity and smaller pores than uncrusted soil. The seal showed no evidence of a “washed-in” zone of illuvial clay in the control treatment, although dispersed clay was observed in the percolating water for some soils. Where FBCBA was effective in increasing water infiltration, an increase in total porosity attributed to planar pores was observed. A sandy loam Oxisol was the least prone to sealing. For this soil, a considerable amount of dispersed clay was observed in the control, while FBCBA rapidly flocculated clay and formed an illuvial clay layer, lowering infiltration. A layer of eluvial silt and fine sand was observed at the surface of soils where considerable dispersion occurred on non-treated soils. Differences in steady-state infiltration could not be explained by the variation in total porosity or pore shape. Spatial variability, pore continuity, and expansion/contraction of clays obscure any relationship with an averaged infiltration even on a small plot.     

A numerical study of infiltration through crusted soils: Flat and other surface configurations

A finite-difference numerical solution of Richards' infiltration equation is developed for one and two-dimensional vertical flow. The model is first validated against experimental observations obtained on a vertical sand column. A comparison between two ways of modelling the crust is presented. In the first approach the crust is assumed to be instantaneously saturated and has an impedance characterized by a hydraulic resistance. The alternative method considers the crust and the underlying soil as a two-layered system. The two methods give almost the same infiltration flux with the only difference that ponding time is shorter for the impedance model since no water is needed to saturate the crust. Also the numerical model is applied to crusted furrow to compare the solution given by a two-dimensional method with one obtained by a one-dimensional approach. It is found that topographic form of the surface at this small scale is not an important parameter.     

Polysaccharide and salt effects on infiltration and soil erosion. A rainfall simulation study

Seals forming at the soil surface during rainstorms reduce water penetration and increase runoff in many arid and semi-arid regions. The effect of surface application of an anionic polysaccharide (designated F-Ac), synthesized by the filamentous cyanobacterium Anabaenopsis circularis PCC 6720, on infiltration rate (IR), runoff and erosion of three soils during simulated rainstorms, was studied. The interaction between F-Ac and electrolyte concentration at the soil surface was studied by using distilled water (DW) or tap water (TW) or by spreading phosphogypsum (PG) on the soil surface. F-Ac added at the rate of 3.4 kg ha⁻¹ together with PG at the rate of 5 t ha⁻¹ was the most efficient treatment in improving infiltration and reducing runoff and erosion. This treatment reduced runoff, from the three soils studied, from 65–80% in the control to 14–24%. Soil loss was reduced from 3.6–4.5 Mg ha⁻¹ in the control to 0.5–1.3 Mg ha⁻¹ in the treated soils. DW treatment, singly and in combination with F-Ac, was quite inefficient in preventing seal formation and in reducing runoff and soil loss. Adding F-Ac with TW maintained final IR and runoff levels intermediate between those of F-Ac with PG and those of F-Ac with DW. Electrolytes in the soil surface which flocculated soil clay, enhanced the beneficial effect of F-Ac on aggregate stability and thus greatly reduced water and soil losses. The efficacy of F-Ac as a stabilizing agent (i.e., soil conditioner) wore out during three consecutive storms of 60 mm each.     

紫色土区林地土壤入渗性能试验研究

土壤入渗是土壤水分运动的重要组成部分。为了准确测得紫色土区林地土壤入渗性能,用双环法和环刀法对其进行测定,并对2种方法的试验结果进行分析和比较,以探求其差异性所在。结果表明：2种方法测定土壤入渗性能各项指标（初渗速率、稳渗速率、平均入渗率）差别较大,它们主要受土壤理化性质及测定条件影响;在试验中双环法测得的初渗速率和平均入渗率差异性要比环刀法的大,稳渗速率则比环刀法小;双环法测得的入渗性能各项指标均值皆比环刀法的大,其中初渗速率大了2.36倍,稳渗速率大了2.17倍,平均入渗率大了2倍;采用4种常用入渗模型对双环法和环刀法测得的结果进行拟合时,其效果表现为：Horton模型>通用经验模型>Kostiakov模型>Philip模型,且环刀法比双环法好;土壤累计入渗量采用一元二次方程拟合比采用一元一次方程拟合好,一元二次方程拟合的决定系数R²都在0.99以上。该试验可以为紫色土区林地土壤入渗的研究提供资料参考。     

黄土坡面结皮对土壤水稳性团聚体的稳定性和可蚀性的影响

为了探析微地形下土壤受雨滴打击后产生的结皮类型及团聚体组成差异。通过人工模拟降雨,研究坡面不同位置的结皮土壤水稳性团聚体分布特征、稳定性以及土壤可蚀性的变化情况。结果表明：（1）土壤水稳性团聚体以大团聚体（粒径>0.25 mm）含量为指标,原状土、结构结皮、沉积结皮、过渡带结皮>0.25 mm粒级的水稳性团聚体分别占37.28%、43.58%、36.69%、40.34%;（2）以降雨历时5 min为例,原状土、结构结皮、沉积结皮、过渡带结皮的水稳性团聚体的破坏率分别为：51.49%、46.00%、62.76%、51.02%;（3）原状土、结构结皮、沉积结皮、过渡带结皮的水稳性团聚体的平均重量直径分别为：0.15、0.20、0.14、0.17 mm;（4）原状土、结构结皮、沉积结皮、过渡带结皮土壤可蚀性K值的大小分别为：0.223、0.200、0.229、0.205。微地形下产生结皮差异使得水稳性团聚体分布有所区别,因此土壤水稳性团聚体稳定性和可蚀性存在差异。     

田菁改良重度盐渍化土壤的效果分析

为评价田菁改良重度盐渍化土壤的效果,试验设置4个处理：（1）只种植田菁(T);（2）种植田菁,施用二铵450 kg/hm²(TA);（3）种植田菁,施用磷石膏2250 kg/hm²(TG);（4）不种植田菁的空白处理作对照(CK)。结果表明：施用磷石膏能够显著促进田菁生长(P<0.05),TG处理地上部、地下部生物量较T、TA处理分别增加了14.24%、24.77%和8.32%、12.39%,施用二铵对田菁生长的促进作用不显著。种植田菁能够显著降低重度盐渍化土壤含盐量、容重,提高土壤速效氮、速效钾、水溶性有机质(DOC)含量,及土壤大团聚体含量、平均重量直径(MWD)、总孔隙度(P<0.05),TG处理改良效果最大。相关分析表明,盐渍化土壤含盐量、Na⁺含量、DOC、有机质是维系盐渍化土壤结构的关键性状,降低土壤含盐量、Na⁺含量,提高DOC、有机质含量是盐渍化土壤改良方向。种植田菁,同时施用磷石膏是一种快速提升重度盐渍化土壤肥力的有效方法。     

土壤入渗特性影响因素研究综述

土壤入渗特性是评价土壤水源涵养作用和抗侵蚀能力的重要指标,也是模拟土壤侵蚀过程的基本输入变量,受制于许多外在和内在因素的影响。综述了影响土壤入渗特性的主要因素,这些因素主要有土壤理化性质、下垫面性质、降雨强度、水质及水温等。并提出了今后应该加强研究的内容。     

红壤结皮发育特征及其与土壤溅蚀的关系

研究红壤表土结皮发育特征及其与土壤溅蚀的关系,可为理解红壤的侵蚀机理提供理论依据。通过人工模拟降雨溅蚀试验,采样制作土壤切片,同时测定红壤溅蚀速率,观察分析红壤土表结构的变化特征以及与土壤溅蚀的关系。结果表明：土壤母质和质地是影响土壤结皮形成的主要因素。母质是花岗岩的红壤不易形成结皮,而母质是红砂岩和第四纪红色粘土的红壤较易形成结皮。石砾和粗砂含量较多的红壤不易形成结皮,而粉粒和粘粒含量越多,红壤表面越易形成结皮。     

衡阳紫色土丘陵坡地植被恢复模式对土壤渗透性的影响

土壤渗透性受制于许多外在与内在的因素,与植被类型、土壤性质等关系密切。为探讨不同植被恢复模式对土壤渗透性能的影响,以裸地为对照,以土壤初渗率、稳渗率、平均渗透率与渗透总量表征土壤渗透性,对衡阳紫色土丘陵4种不同植被恢复模式的渗透性及其与土壤物理性质进行研究。结果表明：（1）4种植被恢复模式的土壤渗透性均优于裸地,各植被恢复模式土壤渗透性能大小依次为：枫香×苦楝＞牡荆×刺槐＞紫薇×糯米条＞狗尾草×狗芽根＞裸地,且初渗率、稳渗率、平均渗透率与渗透总量的关系符合方程：α=0.4865α1+0.4982α2+0.5123α3+0.5202α4（其中,αi为指标的标准化数据）;（2）Horton水分入渗模型拟合的相关系数R2值≥0.775,对所研究的区域的土壤水分入渗过程具有较好的适用性;（3）相关分析表明：土壤渗透性与＞2 mm的土壤组成的百分比、2~0.25 mm土壤组成的百分比、毛管百分比、非毛管百分比和饱和导电率为呈显著或极显著正相关,与土壤容重为呈显著或极显著负相关,与土层深度和＜0.25 mm土壤组成的百分比相关性不明显。     

基于灰色关联法土壤水分垂直入渗影响因素研究

土壤水分入渗过程中主要受压力水头、土壤初始含水率、土壤容重、颗粒级配影响。基于一维垂直土柱积水入渗试验研究这些因素对入渗能力影响的主次关系,利用Green-Ampt与Philip入渗模型得到相应土壤入渗特性参数,采用灰色关联分析法研究四个因素对累积入渗量、饱和导水率、稳定入渗率、湿润锋面吸力、吸渗率的影响程度。结果表明,压力水头、土壤初始含水率、土壤容重、颗粒级配对累积入渗量、入渗率及Green-Ampt与Philip模型中物理参数有显著影响,各处理中饱和导水率与稳定入渗率间误差较小,吸渗率拟合值与利用湿润锋面吸力所得吸渗率计算值间相似程度较高,决定系数R2大于0.85;灰色关联分析结果表明,颗粒级配关联度均值r4最高为0.946 3,土壤容重、初始含水率其次,压力水头影响程度最小（r1=0.562 9）。总而言之,颗粒级配对土壤入渗特性影响起主导作用,该研究成果可为农业灌溉及水资源管理提供理论支撑。     

不同耕作方式对黑土区农田土壤物理特性的影响

为探讨耕作方式对黑土区农田土壤物理特性的影响,2016年6—9月在内蒙古自治区呼伦贝尔市阿荣旗试验区设置3种耕作方式[深松(SS)、免耕(MG)及常规耕作(CK)],分别采集0～10、10～20、20～30 cm土层的土样,对土壤容重、含水量、土壤渗透速率及土壤孔隙度进行调查。结果表明:3种耕作方式土壤容重及含水量均表现为SS>CK>MG;土壤入渗特征表现为初始入渗率>平均渗透率>稳定入渗率;土壤入渗速率及累计入渗量表现为SS>CK>MG;土壤孔隙度以SS处理下最高且随着月份的增加土壤孔隙度降低。主成分分析表明,初始入渗速率和渗透总量对不同耕作方式最为敏感,可以作为考察东北黑土区农田耕作效应与缓解黑土地退化的评价指标。由综合得分可知,不同耕作方式下土壤性能优劣表现为SS>MG>CK。综上,深松耕作可以有效降低土壤容重,提高土壤含水量,促进土壤渗透能力;免耕更有利于水分的保持,降低土壤的无效蒸发。     

团粒结构对黄绵土溅蚀速率和结皮形成的影响研究

为弄清团粒结构在土壤结皮形成过程所起的作用,笔者通过人工模拟降雨溅蚀试验,测定土壤溅蚀速率,同时采样制作土壤切片,分析不同直径团粒对黄绵土溅蚀速率和结皮形成的影响。结果表明：0.15 mm≤D＜2.0 mm和D＜0.038 mm的团粒土壤较易形成结皮,在降雨历时5 min时,土壤表面有结皮形成,随着降雨的继续,土壤表面结皮形成趋于完善;而中度直径0.038 mm≤D＜0.15 mm的团粒土壤不易形成结皮,在降雨历时5 min时,土壤表面都没有结皮形成。在团粒直径范围是0.105 mm≤D＜0.22 mm,随着土壤团粒直径的减小,土壤的溅蚀速率逐渐增加,直径位于0.096~0.15 mm之间的团粒结构土壤的溅蚀速率达到最大,随后,随着土壤团粒直径的减小,土壤溅蚀速率逐渐降低。     

农业应用磷石膏前景展望

磷石膏作为生产磷肥、磷酸排放出的固体废弃物,其污染环境、占用土地等问题日益突出。当今,磷石膏主要应用在建筑材料、土壤改良和化工生产等方面,但也只有30%能够被用来再生利用。通过前人的研究发现,磷石膏中富含植物生长所必须的P,Mg,S,Fe,Si等元素和土壤改良所需要的Ca2+,SO42-,其具有提高植物产量,改善土壤环境的作用,在农业生产中的很多方面有实际和潜在的应用价值。本文结合前沿的研究趋势,从农业生产、土壤改良、生物降解和安全使用等方面综述了磷石膏应用的研究进展,并提出了未来磷石膏应用研究的一些设想,皆在为我国磷石膏合理应用提供理论依据和实践参考。     

土壤砂砾覆盖对入渗和蒸发影响研究进展

砂砾覆盖能防止土壤表面受到雨滴侵蚀,切断土壤的毛细管的作用,从而对土壤入渗和蒸发规律产生影响。本文介绍了国内外砂砾覆盖对入渗和蒸发规律影响的研究成果,现有研究结果表明,降雨入渗与砾石覆盖度之间既有正相关关系, 又有负相关关系,入渗不仅与砂砾粒径有关,还与砂砾在土壤表面所处的位置有关;砂砾覆盖能够抑制蒸发,抑制效果与砂砾粒径大小、颜色和厚度等有关。另外,一些国外学者通过定量化模型来描述了砂砾覆盖条件下入渗和蒸发规律,但这些定量化模型还是最基本的简化模型,主要偏重于理论说明,直接应用于实践还存在一些问题。