Soil protection as a component of gravel raising

Abstract. The methods of soil handling used by Greenham Construction Materials Ltd (Greenham) have been designed to avoid damage to restored soils and the need for subsequent curative work. The systems used to plan restoration, move soil and install drainage are described. The quality of restored land and its cropping potential are described with reference to Greenham's Laleham Farm site at Shepperton Pit in Middlesex. Materials Ltd, to avoid soil damage in the course of extract-     

Soil heterogeneity in lumped mineralization–immobilization models

The heterogeneous distribution of nutrient-rich and nutrient-poor patches in soils strongly affects the intensity of nitrogen cycling between organic and inorganic soil compartments. In highly heterogeneous soils, observation at the core scale of large gross mineralization and immobilization fluxes has led to the development of the mineralization–immobilization turnover (MIT) modeling scheme, which maintains that all nitrogen decomposed from organic compounds is mineralized before assimilation by the microbial biomass. This hypothesis, however, neglects the endogenous nature of the ammonification reactions at the microscopic scale, where organic N is directly assimilated by the decomposers and only the surplus is released as ammonium, as better described by the direct (DIR) pathway. Here we hypothesize that, at the micro-scale, mineralization behaves according to the DIR pathway and analyze a simple two-compartment model to simulate a heterogeneous soil with two fractions of different chemical composition (i.e., C-to-N ratio) and quality (i.e., decomposition rate). We derive the effective parameters of the aggregated model as a function of micro-scale features, and show that it represents a generalization of the parallel (PAR) scheme, which in its original form was introduced to combine DIR and MIT pathways. This physically based new parameterization improves current lumped N mineralization models.     

Soil protection for a sustainable future: options for a soil monitoring network for Ireland

The increased recognition of the importance of soil is reflected in the UN Post‐2015 Development Agenda with sustainable development goals that directly and indirectly relate to soil quality and protection. Despite a lack of legally binding legislation for soil protection, the European Commission remains committed to the objective of soil protection. However, the achievement of a legally binding framework for soil protection relies on the implementation of a soil monitoring network (SMN) that can detect changes to soil quality over time. As beneficiaries do not pay for the provision of soil information, the options for soil monitoring are limited. The use of existing data sets should be considered first. Using Ireland as an example, this research explored the opportunities for a SMN for Ireland considering three existing national data sets. The options for a SMN are considered in terms of their spatial and stratified distribution, the parameters to be measured and an economic analysis of the options proposed. This research finds that for Ireland, either a 10 or a 16 km² grid interval stratified by land use and drainage class offers the best potential in relation to the spatial distribution of existing data sets to reflect local data at a national level. With existing data, the stratified SIS data using the 16 km² grid offers the best value for money, with baseline costs for analysis, excluding field costs, of between €706 481 and €2.8 million. Acknowledging the impossibility of measuring all parameters with ideal frequency, this study proposes a two‐tier system for optimized monitoring frequency. Parameters must anticipate future policy requirements. Finally, the implementation of a SMN must be accompanied by standardized methods, defined thresholds and action mandates to maintain soil quality within allowable limits.     

Soil successions and their connection with heterogeneity of podsolic soils

Modern ideas regarding soil successions and heterogeneity of podsolic soils in the conditions of various biogeocenoses are considered. Functional interdependence between the given natural phenomena is shown. Within the frameworks of macrosuccession, there are adduced examples of soil successions of various genesis and scale. The analysis of such soil successions allows estimating simultaneously the spatiotemporal components of heterogeneity of soils. Windfall soil complexes are a good illustration of soil succession shown at various levels of the organization of a soil body.     

Characterisation of a humus profile under beech forest by using wet-chemistry and CPMAS 13C NMR-spectroscopy in consideration of spatial heterogeneity

Three of ten macromorphologically similar humus profiles of a Dystric Cambisol under a beech forest were randomly chosen and the litter and humus layers were characterized by wet-chemistry and CPMAS ¹³C NMR-spectroscopy. The spatial heterogeneity of the litter and humus layers was high for the bulk density and for the sugar and starch fraction; lowest coefficients of variation were obtained for the chemical shift range of O-Alkyl-C. The spatial heterogeneity of the layers did not differ by means of all chemical methods. Changes in the chemical composition at the beginning of humification were high from the fresh fallen litter (Ln-layer) to the morphologically only slightly altered litter in the L-layer, whereas the changes in the litter and humus layers from the L to the Ohf-layer were minor. However, the organic matter of the first mineral horizon was characterized by a decrease in lignin and cellulose. With wet-chemistry and ¹³C NMR-spectroscopy similar results were obtained for polysaccharides whereas results which can be attributed to changes in lignin deduced by the methoxyl content differed from each other.     

Soil microbial properties down the profile of a black earth burie by colluvium

The activity and biomass of soil microorganisms were determined in samples at 0—140 cm depth taken from an arable site, where the soil has been developed by erosion and colluvial deposition overlaying a black earth at 70—110 cm depth. The central aim was to get an insight into the breakdown of increasingly old and thus recalcitrant soil organic matter down the profile, effects on the availability of C to microorganisms and the microbial community structure. From 0 to 140 cm depth, microbial biomass C decreased by 96%, biomass N by 97%, the adenylates ATP, ADP, and AMP as well as the basal respiration rate by 89%. No ergosterol was measured at 120—140 cm depth. All soil biological properties decreased in distinct steps after 30 cm and 50 cm depth. At 30—90 cm depth, the amounts of soil organic C and microbial biomass C per hectare of the present colluvium exceeded nearly three‐fold those in undisturbed aeolian loess sediments. The cation exchange significantly affected the relationships between microbial biomass C, biomass N, and the adenylates. As a consequence, none of the ratios between the soil microbial biomass properties revealed constant gradients throughout the profile. The adenylate energy charge (AEC) varied between the different soil layers insignificantly around a mean of 0.71. It was the most stable ratio down the profile showing absolutely no depth gradient, the lowest depth‐to‐depth variation, and also the lowest within depth variability. The other ratios between soil organic C, basal respiration, ergosterol, microbial biomass C and biomass N also did not reveal any marked changes in the microbial community structure.     

Soil resource heterogeneity in terms of litter aggregation promotes nitrous oxide fluxes and slows decomposition

To better understand the role of resource heterogeneity in decomposition and nitrous oxide (N₂O) flux we systematically altered the degree of plant litter aggregation in soil, from uniformly distributed to highly aggregated. In laboratory incubations, we distributed 4.5 g of dried clover shoots (Trifolium pratense L.) in two particle sizes (1 or >5 mm) into 1, 3, or 9 patches versus uniformly distributed. Soil moisture content was also varied to manipulate soil oxygen (O₂) concentrations. In moist soil (50% water-filled pore space, WFPS), litter aggregation delayed the peak litter decomposition rate by 3-5 days compared to uniformly distributed litter regardless of the litter particle size. In contrast, under near-saturated soil conditions (80% WFPS) litter aggregation suppressed decomposition throughout the 26-day incubation period. This significant interaction between litter aggregation and soil moisture treatments suggests that diffusion of soil resources (likely O₂) plays an important role in the influence of litter aggregation on decomposition. Specifically, O₂ diffusion may more adequately meet O₂ consumption rates when litter is distributed than when aggregated. In contrast to the temporary influence of aggregation on litter decomposition, N₂O fluxes under 50% WFPS conditions were consistently greater and on average 7.9, 7.2, and 4.7-fold greater than fine aggregated litter (1, 3, and 9 patches, respectively) than when uniformly distributed. Coarse litter aggregation also stimulated N₂O emissions, but not as much as fine litter. Under field conditions with growing maize (Zea mays L.), litter aggregation also stimulated N₂O emissions. The results suggest that litter aggregation plays a role in N₂O flux from agricultural soils and it might be manipulated to provide an additional N₂O mitigation strategy.     

Earthworm feeding activity and development of the humus profile

Earthworm casts and digestive tract contents were simultaneously examined, using the same methods, in a recently formed humus profile in a mountain spruce forest. Earthworm species had distinct diets and an earthworm foodweb could be distinguished. Lumbricus terrestris and Aporrectodea icterica were distinct from the other species examined: the former to some extent as a litter consumer, and both species because they excavated mineral material which was deposited within new top layers of the mull humus. Aporrectodea nocturna and Aporrectodea caliginosa both had a non-specific soil feeding mode. Most of the species enriched the humus profile with amorphous organic matter finely incorporated within a mineral matrix. Besides different food selection, a network of burrows was produced as a consequence of the different burrowing behaviour of each earthworm species. Received: 2 January 1997     

Soil penetration resistance and tree root development

Current UK guidance suggests that a 'rootable' soil profile of at least 1.0 m depth should be sufficient to allow adequate rooting of the majority of tree species in a range of soil types and climatic conditions [Arboricultural Journal (1995) vol. 19, 19–27]. However, there is some uncertainty as to what constitutes a loosened soil profile in terms of penetration resistance. In this study the root development of Italian alder, Japanese larch, Corsican pine and birch was assessed after 5 years of tree growth. These data were compared to penetration resistance measured using both a cone penetrometer and a 'lifting driving tool' (dropping weight penetrometer). Tree root number and percentage were significantly reduced by increasing soil penetration resistance measured with both the cone penetrometer ( P  <   0.050) and the 'lifting driving tool' ( P  =   0.011 and 0.008 respectively). The vast majority of roots were recorded in soils with a penetration resistance of less than 3 MPa (90.7%) with a significant amount in the less than 2 MPa class (70.2%). Root development of Italian alder, Japanese larch and birch all showed a similar pattern, but Corsican pine appeared to be capable of rooting into more compact soils. The 'lifting driving tool' can be used as an alternative measure of soil penetration resistance. This equipment is more cost effective, easier to use and capable of measurements at a greater depth than the cone penetrometer. The majority of Japanese larch and birch roots (84.3%) were recorded in soils where it took less than 15 impacts to penetrate one 10 cm soil depth increment. The modelled data also suggest that a penetration resistance of 2 and 2.5 MPa relates to 10 and 15 impacts respectively.     

山东省水土流失与可持续发展之分析

本文依据水土流失资料，分析了山东省水土流失的特点，提出了防治的基本原则和总体目标。     

宁夏中部压砂区表层土壤离子分布及盐分类型预测

为探明宁夏环香山压砂区盐碱地表层土壤离子分布主要影响因素及盐分类型,研究选取覆盖状况、地面倾角和海拔3个因素,对0～20 cm表层土壤离子分布、盐分存在形式及钠吸附比(SAR)进行研究。结果表明:(1)覆盖状况对土壤表层离子含量有显著影响,地面倾角对HCO_3~-影响显著,海拔对Mg~(2+)有显著影响,裸地Ca~(2+)、Mg~(2+)、K~+、Na~+、Cl~-和SO_4~(2-)含量依次比压砂地高0%～284.21%、100%～130.53%、33.33%～48.94%、18.01%～182.26%、111.94%～468.72%和102.74%～118.82%,而CO_3~(2-)、HCO_3~-含量压砂覆盖比裸地分别高77.08%～400%和24.52%～48.09%;(2)阳离子之间除K~+与Ca~(2+)、Mg~(2+)具有显著正相关外其余都极显著正相关,阴离子Cl~-和SO_4~(2-),CO_3~(2-)和HCO_3~-呈极显著正相关,其余都呈负相关或不显著正相关,阳离子与Cl~-均呈极显著正相关,与SO_4~(2-)除K~+外其余均呈极显著正相关,阳离子与CO_3~(2-)和HCO_3~-呈负相关或不显著正相关;(3)该区域表层土壤盐分主要以NaCl、KCl、CaCl_2、MgCl_2、Ca SO_4、MgSO_4和Na_2SO_4的形式存在,按照摩尔量计,盐分含量排序为:Na~+盐Mg~(2+)盐Ca~(2+)盐K~+盐;(4)覆盖状况对土壤表层SAR影响显著,地面倾角随海拔变化对土壤SAR没有显著影响,压砂地SAR为3.99(mol/kg)~(0.5),裸地为10.73(mol/kg)~(0.5)。宁夏环香山压砂区0～20 cm埋深土壤离子分布主要受到覆盖状况和地面倾角的影响,除K~+外,其他离子受海拔的影响不明显,盐分主要是Na~+盐,其次是Mg~(2+)盐,K~+盐含量最少。     

Soil development in anthropogenically disturbed forest-steppe landscapes

The results of long-term studies of chernozem development in anthropogenically disturbed landscapes of the forest-steppe zone are discussed. Parameters characterizing the formation of the humus horizon of chernozems and the rate of this process are presented. Critical points and characteristic times of the formation of humus horizons are determined. The regeneration of soil properties as dependent on the degree of anthropogenic disturbance of chernozems is estimated.     

黄土高原苹果园地深层土壤氮素含量与分布特征

在黄土高原的凤翔、 白水、 长武、 西峰、 延安和静宁等6个苹果产区,测定了628龄苹果园地0300 cm土层土壤的全氮、 铵态氮和硝态氮含量,分析和比较了不同地区和不同树龄果园土壤全氮、 铵态氮和硝态氮含量及其剖面分布特征。结果表明: 1）不同地区和不同树龄果园土壤全氮含量为0.19 g/kg（延安）1.28 g/kg（白水）,土壤铵态氮含量为5.19 mg/kg（静宁）39.46 mg/kg（长武）,土壤硝态氮含量为3.97 mg/kg（延安）352.86 mg/kg（白水）,除延安点土壤明显较低外其它试点果园土壤全氮含量差异不大,各类果园土壤硝态氮含量差异较大,而铵态氮含量差异较小; 2）不同地区和不同树龄果园60 cm以上土层土壤全氮含量明显高于深层土壤,高龄果园土壤硝态氮含量明显高于低龄果园,并在100 cm以下土层出现不同程度的土壤硝态氮累积现象; 3）延安果园土壤全氮、 铵态氮和硝态氮含量均低于其它试点,需要增施氮肥以提高苹果产量,而凤翔、 白水、 长武、 静宁和西峰苹果园深层土壤硝态氮积累量较高,应维持或适当减少氮肥施用量。     

Soil profile distributions of water and solutes following frequent high water inputs

Investigation of factors affecting leaching patterns under tilled and no-till soils are important for successful modelling of solute leaching. There can be various other factors that may offset an anticipated tillage effect on solute leaching. A study was conducted in a Donnelly silty loam (fine-loamy, mixed frigid Typic Cryoboralf) at Dawson Creek, British Columbia, Canada, to investigate how a reactive chemical (FD&C blue#1 dye) and a conservative tracer (bromide, Br⁻) would leach in a no-till (NT) soil compared to a tilled (T), when high volume of water are provided discretely, at short time intervals. Three plots of 1.5 m × 1.5 m were prepared in each NT and T soil for flood irrigation. The chemicals were applied by spray using a knapsack sprayer. Soil cores were extracted from a maximum depth of 1.25 m using a truck mounted hydraulic soil sampler at 5, 19, and 55 days (S1, S2, and S3, respectively) after irrigating different amounts of water. These soil cores, sub-sampled at different depths, were analysed for water content, Br⁻ and dye concentrations. The analyses indicated that Br⁻ and dye moved in distinctive patterns in the two tillage systems. After irrigating with a total of 240 mm of ponded water in three applications over a period of 10 days, the centre of mass of the travel depth profiles for Br⁻ was 0.15 m in the NT and 0.26 m in the T plots; for the dye, 0.27 m in the NT and 0.17 m in the T plots. At soil core sampling times S1, S2, and S3, the average mass recovered for Br⁻ was 82%, 39%, and 27% in the NT and 78%, 50%, and 45% in the T plots. For the dye, mass recovery rates of 78%, 58%, and 22% were observed in the NT and 92%, 79% and 25% in the T plots. The increasing mass loss of Br⁻ observed with increasing net water inputs in the two tillage systems was more likely due to a lateral loss with water than due to a leaching below sampling depth. The increasing mass loss of dye over time in the two tillage systems was more likely due to a high rate of degradation than to a loss through a lateral or vertical flow.     

Relationship of soil phosphorus with uranium in grassland mineral soils in Ireland using soils from a long‐term phosphorus experiment and a National Soil Database

Phosphorus fertilizer contains contaminants that may increase the content in the soil and in plants. The relationship between soil P and soil uranium (U) was investigated to determine potential effects of P‐fertilizer use. This study is based on a long‐term experiment (38 years with 0, 15, and 30 kg fertilizer P ha^–1 y^–1) for beef production on grassland at Teagasc, Johnstown Castle, Wexford, Ireland and also on soils from a National Soil Database (NSD). The NSD soils were taken at fixed locations on a predetermined grid system at the density of one sample every 50 km². Of the 1310 samples in the NSD, the 760 grassland mineral soils were selected for this study. The aim was to determine to what extent P fertilizer increases the content of U in the soil. The results showed that there was a small but significant increase in soil U in the high‐P treatments, which contained high levels of soil P, in the long‐term field experiment. The results from the NSD showed that there was not a significant relationship between extractable (Morgan's) soil test P (STP) and U. It is concluded that the use of chemical P fertilizer at normal rates used in agriculture in Ireland is not a major threat to U content of soil based on the results of this study. There was a significant relationship between total P and STP, in the NSD, with the latter making up approx. 1% of the former. Soil available P increased with soil pH, probably reflecting the use of chemical P fertilizer and lime on agricultural soils.     

Soil organic carbon stocks, storage profile and microbial biomass under different crop management systems in a tropical agricultural ecosystem

 We investigated the soil organic C and N stocks, storage profiles and microbial biomass as influenced by different crop management systems in a tropical agricultural ecosystem. The different crop management systems significantly affected the C and N stocks and microbial biomass C and N at different soil depths. Amongst the systems evaluated, the rice-wheat system maintained a higher soil organic C content. Inclusion of legumes in the system improved the soil organic matter level and also soil microbial biomass activity, vital for the nutrient turnover and long-term productivity of the soil. Irrespective of the cropping system, approximately 58.4%, 25.7% and 15.9% of the C was distributed in 0–15, 15–30 and 30–60 cm depths, respectively. Received: 10 October 1999     

Soil chronosequences, soil development, and soil evolution: a critical review

Soils chronosequences are valuable tools for investigating rates and directions of soil and landscape evolution. Post-incisive chronosequences are the most common type of chronosequence. They are found in many landscapes, including sand dunes, glacial moraines, landslide scars, old pasture, burnt landscape patches, old mining areas, lava flows, alluvial fans, floodplains, river terraces, and marine terraces. They register pedogenic change over time-scales ranging from years to millions of years. Soil chronosequences help in testing rival theories of pedogenesis. Traditional soil formation theory sees a soil developing progressively under the influence of the environmental state factors until it is in equilibrium with prevailing environmental conditions. This developmental view of pedogenesis is supported by the classic soil chronosequence studies. A new evolutionary view of pedogenesis, which was prompted by the omnipresent inconstancy of environmental conditions and the notions of multidirectional changes and multiple steady states (as predicted by non-linear dynamics), proposes that environmental inconstancy and non-linear behaviour in soil-landscapes lead to soil evolution, rather than to soil development. Soils ‘evolve' through continual creation and destruction at all scales, and may progress, stay the same, or retrogress, depending on the environmental circumstances. Some recent soil and vegetation chronosequence investigations support an evolutionary view of pedogenesis. It is concluded that soil chronosequences are still potent instruments for pedological investigations and that they have a starring role to play in the testing of pedological theories.     

红壤干旱过程中剖面水分特征与土层干旱指标

农田水分管理以及产量评估都需要对土壤作物受旱状况定量化和指标化。干旱强度和干旱程度结合才能完整地描述土壤作物干旱状况,土壤干旱强度I是土壤剖面失水速率的函数,干旱影响逐渐累积并增强就构成干旱程度D,据此提出了包含I和D二个指数的土层干旱指标表达模式。通过红壤小区种植玉米并在抽穗期开始设置连续干旱12～36 d等6个不同的处理,研究了红壤干旱过程中剖面水分特征和干旱指标。结果表明：供试红壤干旱过程中剖面40 cm以下含水率下降幅度很小,玉米主要利用了0～40 cm土层的水分,监测30～40 cm土层含水率的变化情况可以指示玉米受到干旱胁迫的程度。连续干旱25 d后40 cm以下土层含水率明显降低,玉米产量也显著下降,此时0～60 cm土层和30～40 cm土层的干旱程度D均为0.55,可用此指标作为灌溉的依据。