土壤分离能力测定的不确定性分析

土壤分离能力是含沙量为零时坡面径流分离土壤的最大值,是确定细沟可蚀性和土壤临界剪切力的基础,也是土壤侵蚀过程模型推广应用的前提,因此,对其准确测量非常关键。在系统分析野外坡面径流小区无法测定土壤分离能力的基础上,从室内试验水槽的类型与规格、土样采集的代表性、测试样品的长度、扰动程度、初始土壤含水量及土样冲刷时间等方面,系统讨论了它们对土壤分离能力的潜在影响与机制,探讨了土壤分离能力测定过程中的不确定性。对深刻理解土壤侵蚀过程的动力机制、选择合理的土壤分离能力测定方法与试验过程,具有重要的指导意义。     

Effect of soil aggregate size on infiltration and erosion characteristics

Detachment of soil particles by the processes of splash from rainfall and shallow flow from surface runoff is influenced by soil cohesion, soil aggregate properties, and characteristics of this flow. We have evaluated relationships between rates of detachment, aggregate size, and tensile strength of the soil. Soil and water losses were determined in the laboratory from sieved air‐dry samples on three aggregate size ranges of two clay loam soils differing in particle‐size distribution and organic matter. Tensile strength was measured for each aggregate size range. The results showed that as clod size increased, detachment rates increased and interaggregate tensile strength decreased. Wash erosion increased as initial clod size increased despite a decrease in runoff. Final rates of loss by splash were greater from the largest clods than from the smaller clods. Finally, splashed material was larger in size than material washed off. The fact that the size of the splashed material was larger than washed‐off material shows that material in the wash suffered more impact by raindrops and thus was more likely to be fragmented.     

台田措施下坡面流土壤侵蚀水动力学特征

通过野外径流小区放水试验,研究2种台田类型(土坎,石坎)、3种台田级数(1,2,3级)、1种坡度(10°)、3种放水流量(0.5,1,1.5m~3/h)下坡面流土壤侵蚀过程,分析台田措施下坡面流土壤侵蚀水动力学特征。结果表明,台田级数对坡面流流态影响较大,增加台田级数可使坡面流波动性降低,台田类型对雷诺数影响相对较小。土壤分离速率总体随流量增大而增大,相同流量条件下,呈波动性增加后减少且逐渐趋于平稳的特征,两者相关关系用指数函数回归方程拟合(R20.840)。同类台田且田面宽度和相同条件下,土壤分离速率与台田级数呈负相关关系,阻力系数与流量呈负相关关系,坡面流土壤分离速率与阻力系数呈负相关关系。研究结果对认识坡面流土壤侵蚀的过程和规律具有重要意义,也为坡面侵蚀物理模型的建立提供参考。     

黄土丘陵区须根系作物地土壤分离季节变化研究

采用变坡试验水槽的试验方法,研究了黄土丘陵区典型须根系作物玉米和谷子在生长季土壤分离能力的季节变化及潜在影响因素。结果表明:在作物生长季,须根系作物玉米地和谷子地的土壤分离能力具有明显的季节变化(P0.05),并表现出了相似的季节变化模式;两种作物地土壤分离能力的季节变化主要受到农事活动、土壤硬化、水稳性团聚体和作物根系生长的影响;两种作物地的土壤分离能力可以用土壤粘结力、作物根系密度和水流剪切力很好地拟合(R~20.75,NSE0.74)。     

Regional assessment of soil erosion using the distributed model SEMMED and remotely sensed data

The soil erosion model for Mediterranean regions (SEMMED) is presented and used to produce regional maps of simulated soil loss for two Mediterranean test sites: one in southern France and one in Sicily. The model demonstrates the integrated use of (1) multi-temporal Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) images to account for vegetation properties, (2) a digital terrain model in a GIS to account for topographical properties and to assess the transport capacity of overland flow, (3) a digital soil map to assess the spatial distribution of soil properties, and (4) a limited amount of soil physical field data. The principle drawbacks of the model are that it does not account for soil particle detachment by overland flow nor for soil surface crusting. The model is most sensitive to the initial soil moisture storage capacity and the soil detachability index. The main advantages of SEMMED are that it simulates processes at a regional scale and, where possible, it uses available data sources such as remote sensing imagery, digital elevation models (DEM) and (digital) soil databases, which usually are not available for smaller catchment areas. Using SEMMED it is possible to produce regional maps of erosion assessments, which are of more practical use in land use planning and land management than simple extrapolations from small plot experiments.     

Destruction of soil aggregates in slope flows

Field studies and model experiments, as well as theoretical considerations, suggest that bed sediments represented by soil aggregates in overland flows on slopes exert a considerable influence on the intensity of erosion processes. In this context, one of the key problems in the development of adequate erosion models is the problem of the rate of destruction of such aggregates in the flows. The results of experimental studies of the destruction of aggregates of chernozemic soils are analyzed. It is found that the destruction of soil aggregates in the flow proceeds in two stages. During the first stage, the aggregates are rapidly broken apart into smaller fragments. During the second stage, these fragments are subjected to abrasion. An equation describing the destruction of aggregates upon their movement in the flow in dependence on the aggregate size and the distance of aggregate transport is suggested. The effect of some groups of soil microorganisms on the aggregate resistance to the destruction is shown.     

Quantifying the effects of the plant canopy,plant roots,and biological soil crust on soil detachment by overland flow

Journal of Soils and Sediments - The plant canopy, plant roots, and biological soil crusts play important roles in soil detachment by overland flow. This study aims to quantify and analyze the...     

Influence of soil surface features and vegetation on runoff and erosion in the Western Sierra Madre (Durango,Northwest Mexico)

In mountainous areas, runoff and soil erosion are closely linked to soil surface features, particularly stoniness. Depending on the size of rock fragments (gravel, pebbles, stones and/or blocks) and especially the way they are integrated into the soil matrix, they may facilitate or hinder infiltration and promote soil losses. The present study examines the role of different soil surface features and their influence on runoff formation and on soil erosion in an area seriously affected by overgrazing.Based on measurements made on hillslopes for 2 years at the plot scale, the results show that grass cover, pebbles and sand content increase runoff and erosion. Inversely, slope value, tree cover percentage, structural stability and organic matter content are negatively correlated with runoff and soil losses.It is shown that the correlations can be explained by the major role played by the surface features on hydrologic behaviour of the hillslopes. Two main surface features were identified and hydraulically characterised, namely: (i) crusted surfaces with embedded gravel widespread on gentle slopes which induce high runoff and erosion rates; and (ii) stony surfaces, where free pebbles and blocks protect the top soil against raindrops and overland flow kinetic energy and lead to reduce runoff and soil losses.     

退耕驱动的近地表特性变化对土壤侵蚀的潜在影响

黄土高原是我国、乃至全球土壤侵蚀最严重的区域之一,侵蚀强度及时空分布特征受近地表特性的显著影响.退耕还林(草)工程大面积的有效实施,势必会引起近地表特性(土壤理化性质、植被茎秆、枯落物、生物结皮、根系系统)的显著变化,进而对坡面径流的水动力学特性及侵蚀过程产生影响.本文从退耕驱动的近地表特性变化、近地表特性变化对坡面径流水动力学特性的影响、近地表特性变化对土壤侵蚀过程(土壤分离、泥沙输移、泥沙沉积)的影响及其机制、区域土壤侵蚀对退耕的响应4个方面较为系统地总结近几十年国内外的研究成果,并提出了目前亟待强化的研究领域.这对理解退耕坡面土壤侵蚀过程及其动力机制、建立植被覆盖坡面的土壤侵蚀过程模型、评价退耕坡面的水土保持效益,具有重要的理论意义.     

土壤侵蚀磁性示踪剂的研制及其示踪效果研究

Soil erosion, which includes soil detachment, transport, and deposition, is one of the important dynamic land surface processes. The magnetic tracer method is a useful method for studying soil erosion processes. In this study, five types of magnetic tracers were made with fine soil, fly ash, cement, bentonite, and magnetic powder (reduced iron powder) using the method of disk granulation. The tracers were uniformly mixed with soil and tested in the laboratory using simulated rainfall and inflow experiments to simulate the interrill and rill components of soil erosion, in order to select one or more tracers which could be used to study detachment and deposition by the erosive forces of raindrops and surface flow of water on a slope. The results showed that the five types of magnetic tracers with high magnetic susceptibility and a wide range of sizes had a range of 0.99-1.29 g cm?3 in bulk density. In the interrill and rill experiments, the tracers FC1 and FC2 which consisted of ?y ash and cement at ratios of 1:1 and 2:1, respectively, were transported in phase with soil particles since the magnetic susceptibility of sediment approximated that of the soil which was uneroded and the slopes of the regression equations between the detachment of sediment and magnetic tracers FC1 and FC2 were very close to the expected value of 20, which was the original soil/tracer ratio. The detachment and deposition on slopes could be accurately reffected by the magnetic susceptibility differences. The change in magnetic susceptibility depended on whether deposition or detachment occurred. However, the tracer FS which consisted of fine soil and the tracers FB1 and FB2 which consisted of fly ash and bentonite at ratios of 1:1 and 2:1, respectively, were all unsuitable for soil erosion study since there was no consistent relationship between sediment and tracer detachment for increasing amounts of runo?. Therefore, the tracers FC1 and FC2 could be used to study soil erosion by water.     

Characterization of the drop-size distribution and velocity-diameter relation of the throughfall under the maize canopy

In this study, we used a pair of optical disdrometers, one under and one outside the maize canopy, to measure the drop-size and the velocity distribution of hydrometeors during 12 storms and identified four distinct regions by examining how the fraction of drops recorded on the throughfall changed with respect to the drop diameter. The first region, containing drops with diameters smaller than 0.5 mm, showed an elevated number on the throughfall. Their numbers were comparable to the numbers of drops that lacked enough energy to adhere to the leaf. The second region, featuring drops with diameters larger than 0.5 mm and smaller than 3 mm, had a number ratio very close to the canopy gap fraction, indicating that their most likely origin was direct throughfall. The third region entailed drops with diameters ranging from 3 mm to 5.5 mm that featured a high throughfall to rainfall count ratio, with one of the diameter classes having higher counts under the canopy than outside of it. Through simplified calculations, we showed that drop weights in this region should exceed surface tension forces and lead to their detachment. In the fourth and final region, the throughfall to rainfall ratio decreased converging to the canopy gap fraction. By comparing the number of drops on each of the 440 diameter/velocity classes under and outside of the canopy, we were able to identify preferential drop sizes on the throughfall, i.e. classes of drop diameters with higher drop-size distributions under the canopy. The drop classes presenting higher counts under the canopy had diameters ranging from 3.25 mm to 5.75 mm with velocities between 1.4 m s⁻¹ and 5 m s⁻¹. We were able to trace the origin of those drops to heights of between 0.10 m and 1.05 m within the canopy, confirming that these drops constitute the indirect throughfall. The capability to estimate the detachment height of drops allows us to reconstruct the drop-size distribution at different levels of the canopy and offers unique insight into the mechanics of interception, indirect throughfall formation and re-interception of raindrops by the maize canopy.     

Entropy, non-linearity and hierarchy in ecosystems

Soil-plant systems are open systems thermodynamically because they exchange both energy and matter with their surroundings. Thus they are properly described by the second and third of the three stages of thermodynamics defined by Prigogine and Stengers (1984). The second stage describes a system in which the flow is linearly related to the force. Such a system tends towards a steady state in which entropy production is minimized, but it depends on the capacity of the system for self-organization. In a third stage system, flow is non-linearly related to force, and the system can move far from equilibrium. This system maximizes entropy production but in so doing facilitates self-organization. The second stage system was suggested earlier to provide a useful analogue of the behaviour of natural and agricultural ecosystems subjected to perturbations, but it needs the capacity for self-organization. Considering an ecosystem as a hierarchy suggests that this capacity is provided by the soil population, which releases from dead plant matter nutrients such as nitrate, phosphate and cations needed for growth of new plants and the renewal of the whole ecosystem. This release of small molecules from macromolecules increases entropy, and the soil population maximizes entropy production by releasing nutrients and carbon dioxide as vigorously as conditions allow. In so doing it behaves as a third stage thermodynamic system.Other authors (Schneider and Kay, 1994, 1995) consider that it is the plants in an ecosystem that maximize entropy, mainly through transpiration, but studies on transpiration efficiency suggest that this is questionable.     

连续失水-复水中不同粒径保水剂对土壤结构和水分特性的影响

为明确土壤干湿交替环境下保水剂与土壤颗粒之间的作用方式及保水剂对土壤结构和水分有效性的影响。通过土柱模拟试验,研究连续失水—复水条件下,不同粒径(0.85,0.6～0.85,0.30～0.45 mm)保水剂对土壤水分特性、土壤团聚体分布和结构稳定性的作用,以及保水剂—土壤混合体价键结构的微观变化特征。结果表明:第1次(T1)和第2次(T2)失水取样阶段,除T2阶段的最小粒径处理外,其余各粒径保水剂促使土壤相对含水量较对照显著增加72.9%以上(P0.05)。保水剂粒径大小和土壤水分状况均会影响保水剂对土壤供水能力的作用效果,粒径最小的保水剂改变土壤持续吸水和供水的能力较差,促进土壤水稳性大团聚体组成和团聚结构稳定的性能最优。在连续的干湿交替影响下,保水剂与土壤的作用加剧,壤土中的Si-O-Si键、-OH、蒙脱石和石英等矿物胶体会进入到保水剂网状结构中,反应的剧烈程度会影响土壤水稳性大团聚体的形成和稳定性。初步分析认为,随着反复失水—复水进程,更多黏粒矿物对保水剂分子结构的破坏,是减弱保水剂吸持水性能的主要因素之一。     

Estimation of soil splash detachment rates on the forest floor of an unmanaged Japanese cypress plantation based on field measurements of throughfall drop sizes and velocities

To study and model the interrill erosion process in an unmanaged Japanese cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa) plantation, soil splash detachment rates were estimated based on the quantification of throughfall raindrop indices. Throughfall drops and soil splash detachment were simultaneously observed in the field, and observed data were compared with estimates produced by previous models. Observations took place over five months in 2005, during six observation periods. Raindrop indices of kinetic energy (KE), momentum (M), and momentum multiplied by the drop diameter (MD) were calculated from drop diameters and velocities. The median volume diameter of 1.99 mm for the overall observation period was well bounded by those from other Japanese cypress plantations. Throughfall consisted of large drops, generated as drips, exceeding 3 mm in diameter. The fall height was insufficient for the drops to attain terminal velocity, with 91% of the drops reaching less than 90% terminal velocity. The observed throughfall raindrop indices had strong correlation with throughfall rainfall intensity, even though throughfall raindrops occurred in seven rainfall events with different meteorological conditions. The values of observed KE and M were lower than previous model-derived estimations. Earlier models tended to overestimate throughfall KE and M, partly because the expected velocity was greater than that observed, and partly because they did not consider the effect of the splash water component during throughfall. The splash detachment rate in forests was weakly correlated with the total-amount raindrop indices but strongly correlated with the maximum value of raindrop indices over a short time scale such as 1 h. This result indicates that continuous and concentrated raindrop impacts over a short time duration cause splash detachment in the forest floor. Development of a comprehensive model of the process of forest floor soil surface erosion requires more detailed measurement of actual throughfall drops.     

Impacts of different surface features on soil detachment in the subtropical region

Near-surface features have a great influence on runoff and detachment processes by overland flow, but the contributions are still unclear on steep slopes with yellow soil in subtropical humid regions. Field scouring experiments were conducted to investigate how near-surface features affect hydraulic parameters and detachment rate by overland flow. Five treatments and a baseline (disturbed rootless bare cropland) were designed to identify the contributions from stem-leaves, litter, biological soil crusts (BSCs), root systems and non-disturbance, respectively. The results showed that (1) the values of velocity, Reynolds number and Froude number for vegetated slopes were significantly lower than that of baseline, and stem-leaves made a greater contribution (average of 47.30%) to reducing kinetic energy than the other features; (2) the total contribution rate of grassland was 99.38%, and of this total, 1.19, 1.44, 2.49, 49.79 and 44.47% reductions were attributed to the stem-leaves, litter, BSCs, root systems and non-disturbance, respectively. Root system and non-disturbance dominated the detachment rate reduction; (3) with increasing flow rate or slope gradient, the total contribution rate remained between 98% and 100%; and (4) for each treatment, the relationship between detachment rate and hydraulic parameters remained constant, and the stream power was the best predictor to detachment rate. The study results are helpful in evaluating the effects of near-surface features on erosion control and providing reference for government decision-makers to choose appropriate soil conservation and management practices.     

狭缝型分布板流化床提高核桃壳颗粒的流化效果

为了提高Geldart D类大颗粒物料在流化床中的流化效果,该文设计了一种结构简单的狭缝型气体分布板,进行了核桃壳颗粒(2~2.8 mm)的流态化试验,结果表明狭缝型分布板比传统多孔分布板提高床层膨胀率约5%,降低最小流化速率约8%。在欧拉-欧拉法的双流体模型和颗粒动力学理论基础上,建立流化床内气固两相流的数学模型并对模型进行验证,模拟值与试验值的误差在8%以内。利用数学模型对2种分布板流化床内大颗粒流化过程进行数值模拟,比较了2种分布板结构对流化床内床层压降、床层膨胀率、颗粒相体积分数及气固两相的流化速度的影响。模拟结果表明:狭缝型分布板的"V"型气流通道结构,使得气流易于集束向上运动,形成大气泡对床层造成扰动,从而增大床层压降波动幅度,提高床层膨胀率,并在流化床内形成4个小环流,促进气体相和颗粒相之间的混合,使得核桃壳颗粒流化均匀。该研究为大颗粒物料处理过程中流化床分布板的设计和选用提供参考。     

玉米季横垄坡面土壤剥蚀率与径流含沙量关系

为明确玉米全生育期横垄坡面土壤剥蚀率与径流含沙量之间的关系,以川中丘陵紫色土区坡耕地为研究对象,通过野外人工模拟降雨试验,开展玉米全生育期土壤剥蚀率和径流含沙量变化特征研究,并分析土壤剥蚀率与径流含沙量之间的关系。结果表明:(1)玉米全生育期土壤剥蚀率随降雨强度的增大而增大,2.0mm/min降雨强度条件下土壤剥蚀率分别为1.5,1.0mm/min降雨强度条件下的1.87,4.59倍;同一降雨强度条件下,土壤剥蚀率在玉米生长过程中先降低后增加,苗期显著高于其他生育期。(2)不同降雨强度条件下,产沙量随玉米生育期的推进先降低后增加,苗期最大(306.6g),抽雄期最小(64.6g);除玉米抽雄期外,其他各生育期产沙量随降雨强度的增大逐渐增加,且苗期和拔节期产沙量在降雨强度间差异显著;玉米各生育期径流含沙量在降雨过程中呈波动变化的趋势,降雨强度越大,其波动幅度越强。(3)玉米全生育期土壤剥蚀率与径流含沙量呈幂函数关系,且两者间达到极显著水平。研究结果可为揭示紫色土区坡耕地水蚀机理和区域水蚀预测预报模型构建提供理论依据。     

极端降雨条件下秸秆覆盖坡面水流流速空间分布

坡面流流速是地表水文和水土保持研究的重要参数。极端降雨条件下,秸秆覆盖坡面水动力过程复杂,探明其流速分布规律对坡耕地土壤侵蚀预报具有重要意义。该研究的模拟降雨试验在黄土高原土壤侵蚀与旱地农业国家重点实验室降雨大厅内进行。试验土槽宽0.25 m,长8 m,深0.3 m,底部填装黏壤土（31.8%黏粒,43.3%粉粒,24.8%砂粒）,土壤表面均匀铺设长5～7 cm小麦秸秆。试验雨强为160 mm/h2,共设置3种坡度（5°、10°和20°）和3种秸秆覆盖率（0、2和8 t/hm2）,分别在沿着坡长方向距坡顶1.15、3.15、4.15和5.15 m处设置采集点;采用电解质示踪法测量坡面水流流速,分析秸秆覆盖率对坡面流流速及其空间分布规律的影响。结果表明,极端降雨条件下质心法适用于秸秆覆盖坡面流速测量,秸秆覆盖下测量流速为0.017～0.117 m/s;秸秆覆盖可削弱雨滴对坡面流的扰动,增大下垫面的粗糙度,流速随覆盖率的增大而减小。流速随坡度与坡长的增加而增大;沿坡长方向流速变化率逐渐减小,流速最终趋于稳定;由于秸秆对水流的阻碍作用,高秸秆覆盖率坡面达到最大稳定流速的距离减小。秸秆覆盖坡面与裸坡面的水流流速存在显著的线性关系。秸秆覆盖影响坡面流流态,层流的临界雷诺数取值应小于500。研究结果对理解极端降雨条件下覆盖坡面土壤侵蚀机理具有重要意义。     

The potential for soil phosphorus tests to predict phosphorus losses in overland flow

Soil phosphorus tests offer a potentially powerful tool for land managers trying to predict the areas which will contribute diffuse losses of phosphorus (P) to surface water bodies through the overland flow vector – but do they work? We address this question at a range of scales, from patch (< 1 m²), through plot (several m²) to small watershed (several hectares). Our hypothesis is that as we increase the scale, and therefore the complexity of the system, soil P tests will predict P concentrations and losses associated with overland flow less well, and that this is partly due to a shift from dissolved P losses to P losses associated with eroded soil material. At the patch scale soil P tests were used to predict the P concentration and load from 24 European soils exposed to simulated rainfall under controlled conditions in the laboratory. Results showed that soil P tests were generally good predictors of reactive P <0.45 μm, but did less well at predicting total P > 0.45 μm. By combining the soil P test with measured sediment concentrations predictions of total P concentrations improved. Outdoor rainfall simulation experiments on bare soil plots (10 m²) revealed the overwhelming influence of particle bound P losses compared with P losses in the water phase. Soil P tests, which relate primarily to the dissolved P fractions in soil, were not able to predict total P losses, but were related to reactive P < 0.45 μm losses. At the watershed scale soil P tests were able to predict reactive P < 0.45 μm losses, but with considerable uncertainty. We conclude that soil P tests, in combination with sediment concentration provide a useful means of assessing the mobilization of P in overland flow, but should not be expected to provide watershed scale predictions of the movement of P into overland flow.     

Effect of Mulching with Vegetative Residues on Soil Water Erosion and Water Balance in an Oxisol Cropped by Cassava in East Cameroon

Soil water erosion is a major agricultural concern in tropical Africa with high precipitation and low soil fertility where Oxisols are generally distributed. A field experiment was conducted in east Cameroon during the rainy season in 2013 to investigate the effects of surface mulching with the residues of Imperata cylindrica on soil losses and surface runoff water generation in a cassava cropland on an Oxisol. Three treatments were established using two small plots for each treatment: bare plot (BA), cassava plot (CA) and cassava with mulch plot (CM). Soil loss and surface runoff water were measured, and water budgets of rainfall, surface runoff and soil moisture within rainfall events were measured in all treatment plots. Runoff coefficients in all treatment plots were suppressed below 8·0% because the large volume of large pores of surface soil of Oxisols contributed to the high drainage capacity over a rainy season even under wet soil moisture conditions. Total soil loss in CM was decreased by 49% compared with that in BA and CA, despite there not being a large difference in runoff water among treatments. These results suggest that surface mulching with the residues of I. cylindrica can substantially suppress soil losses caused by particle detachment by raindrops, while it maintain soil surface with originally high permeability in cassava croplands on Oxisols. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.