Fuel buildup and potential fire behavior after stand-replacing fires,logging fire-killed trees and herbicide shrub removal in Sierra Nevada forests

Typically, after large stand-replacing fires in mid-elevation Sierra Nevada forests, dense shrub fields occupy sites formerly occupied by mature conifers, until eventually conifers overtop and shade out shrubs. Attempting to reduce fuel loads and expedite forest regeneration in these areas, the USDA Forest Service often disrupts this cycle by the logging of fire-killed trees, replanting of conifers and killing of shrubs. We measured the effects of these treatments on live and dead fuel loads and alien species and modeled potential fire behavior and fire effects on regenerating forests. Sampling occurred in untreated, logged and herbicide-treated stands throughout the Sierra Nevada in four large fire areas 4–21 years after stand-replacing fires. Logging fire-killed trees significantly increased total available dead fuel loads in the short term but did not affect shrub cover, grass and forb cover, alien species cover or alien species richness. Despite the greater available dead fuel loads, fire behavior was not modeled to be different between logged and untreated stands, due to abundant shrub fuels in both logged and untreated stands. In contrast, the herbicide treatment directed at shrubs resulted in extremely low shrub cover, significantly greater alien species richness and significantly greater alien grass and forb cover. Grass and forb cover was strongly correlated with solar radiation on the ground, which may be the primary reason that grass and forb cover was higher in herbicide treated stands with low shrub and tree cover. Repeat burning exacerbated the alien grass problem in some stands. Although modeled surface fire flame lengths and rates of spread were found to be greater in stands dominated by shrubs, compared to low shrub cover conifer plantations, surface fire would still be intense enough to kill most trees, given their small size and low crown heights in the first two decades after planting.     

北京西山林场火烧迹地植被更新及可燃物负荷量研究

在野外调查的基础上,对比研究了北京西山林场4种林分类型火烧迹地与对照林地上植被更新及可燃物负荷量的差异,对更新林分的潜在燃烧性进行了分析。所选择林分为侧柏林、油松林、刺槐林与白蜡林,其中侧柏林和油松林为2003年过火林分,刺槐林和白蜡林为2006年过火林分。火烧后,侧柏林采用人工更新,其它3种林分采用天然更新,研究结果表明:人工更新的火烧迹地上(侧柏林)植被多样性指数减少,总可燃物负荷量增加;而天然更新火烧迹地上(油松林、刺槐林及白蜡林)植被多样性指数增加,但总可燃物负荷量减少;火烧迹地可燃物负荷量的多少与更新时间成正比。总体而言,火烧更新使林地上易燃可燃物负荷量增加,难燃可燃物负荷量减少,从而使更新后林分的潜在燃烧性增加。     

A GIS-based integrated approach predicts accurately post-fire Aleppo pine regeneration at regional scale

Context

This study investigates post-fire natural regeneration of Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis) forests at Ilia region (Peloponnesus, Greece) following the catastrophic fire of 2007.

Aims

The objective of this study is the prediction of P. halepensis post-fire regeneration at a regional scale through an integrated geographic information systems (GIS) model as a basis for post-fire management plans.

Methods

The model was developed in three interconnected stages: (1) field data collection, (2) development of two prediction models (based on interpolation of field data and multi-criteria evaluation (MCE) that combined factors known to affect regeneration), and (3) combination of applied models using Bayesian statistics.

Results

Post-fire pine regeneration presented high variation among the studied plots. Redundancy analysis revealed the positive effect of fallen branches and a negative correlation with altitude. Both modeling approaches (geostatistical and MCE) predicted the post-fire pine regeneration with high accuracy. A very significant correlation (r?=?0.834, p?<?0.01) was found between the combined final model and the actual number of counted seedlings, illustrating that less than 10?% of the studied area corresponds to sites of very low post-fire pine regeneration.

Conclusions

The combination of GIS models increased the prediction success of different levels of pine regeneration. Low-altitude areas with low grass cover overlying tertiary deposits were proved the most suitable for pine regeneration, while stands developing on limestone proved least suitable. The proposed methodology provides management authorities with a sound tool to quickly assess Aleppo pine post-fire regeneration potential.     

Forest structure and woody plant species composition along a fire chronosequence in mixed pine–oak forest in the Sierra Madre Oriental, Northeast Mexico

Although wildfires are occurring frequently in the pine–oak forests in the Sierra Madre Oriental (northeastern Mexico), data on post-fire succession and forest structure are still rare. Our objectives were to (1) assess the changes in woody plant species composition after fire and to (2) to relate successional patterns to environmental variability. Based on their fire history 23 plots were selected in the Parque Ecológico Chipinque (PECH). Changes in forest structure across the chronosequence of burned stands were deduced from density, height and diameter measurements of trees and shrubs (>5 cm in diameter) in all plots of 1000 m². Differences in woody plant species composition among the plots were evaluated using Shannon evenness measure and the Whittaker's measure and by Hierarchical cluster analysis and Detrended Correspondence Analysis. Hierarchical cluster analysis showed a high similarity among all recently burned plots, independed of the aspect. Multivariate analysis showed that local environmental factors, including time since fire, continue to structure species composition. Oak species (mainly Quercus rysophylla) resprouted successfully after fire and dominated young post-fire stands. Pine species (Pinus pseudotrobus and Pinus teocote) only appeared 18 years after fire and were the dominating species in mature stands (62 years after fire). In contrast, woody plant species composition in older stands tended also to be influenced by factors such as aspect and by the potential solar radiation (PSR) during the growing season. The results demonstrate that in the PECH, natural regeneration is sufficient and woody plant species composition will be similar to pre-fire conditions after 60 years of succession. We conclude that the park managers should consider incorporating natural disturbance regimes into their management practices.     

Diversity and succession of adventive and indigenous vascular understorey plants in Pinus radiata plantation forests in New Zealand

The vegetation of Pinus radiata plantation forests in New Zealand was studied to examine how the indigenous flora has responded to this novel habitat. A chronosequence of stands about 5, 16 and 27 years was assessed in each of four different biogeographic regions to test the effects of several stand and site factors on the succession of vascular understorey plant communities. A total of 202 indigenous and 70 adventive vascular plant species were found across all study areas, with considerable geographic variation among forests in species composition, species richness (range 48–135 species), and the percentage of indigenous species (50–86%). Both richness and cover of adventive species decreased significantly over time, whereas richness and cover of indigenous species was highest in the oldest stands, and overall species richness was lowest at mid-rotation. The guild composition changed from dominance of grasses and forbs in young stands to dominance of ferns and understorey trees in mature stands. These temporal changes were accompanied by a decrease in light-demanding pioneer species and an increase in shade tolerant, later seral species adapted to a forest environment. Measurements of the degree of canopy closure in stands with low or high stocking and modelling of temporal changes of canopy closure indicated that these understorey plant dynamics are influenced by changes in light availability as stands age. Despite the successional changes within forests, geographic variation more strongly influenced understorey communities because stands within a forest area were grouped together in DCA and TWINSPAN analyses, along rainfall and temperature gradients. Although the canopy species of such intensively managed plantation forests is an alien element in the New Zealand flora, the sheltered forest environment of older stands allows the establishment of a mostly indigenous forest understorey community with considerable similarities to indigenous forests located nearby.     

Canopy fuel characteristics and potential crown fire behavior in Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis Mill.) forests

Canopy fuel characteristics that influence the initiation and spread of crown fires were measured in representative Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis Mill.) stands in Greece. Vertical distribution profiles of canopy fuel load, canopy base height and canopy bulk density are presented. Aleppo pine canopy fuels are characterized by low canopy base height (3.0–6.5 m), while available canopy fuel load (0.96–1.80 kg/m²) and canopy bulk density (0.09–0.22 kg/m³) values are similar to other conifers worldwide. Crown fire behavior (probability of crown fire initiation, crown fire type, rate of spread, fireline intensity and flame length) in Aleppo pine stands with various understory fuel types was simulated with the most updated crown fire models. The probability of crown fire initiation was high even under moderate burning conditions, mainly due to the low canopy base height and the heavy surface fuel load. Passive crown fires resulted mostly in uneven aged stands, while even aged stands gave high intensity active crown fires. Assessment of canopy fuel characteristics and potential crown fire behavior can be useful in fuel management and fire suppression planning.     

Tropical reptiles in pine forests: Assemblage responses to plantations and plantation management by burning

Worldwide, the land area devoted to timber plantations is expanding rapidly, especially in the tropics, where reptile diversity is high. The impacts of plantation forestry and its management on native species are poorly known, but are important, because plantation management goals often include protecting biodiversity. We examined the impact of pine (Pinus caribaea) plantations, and their management by fire, on the abundance and richness of reptiles, a significant proportion of the native biodiversity in tropical northern Australia, by (i) comparing abundance and diversity of reptiles among pine plantations (on land cleared specifically for plantation establishment), and two adjacent native forest types, eucalypt and Melaleuca woodlands, and (ii) comparing reptile abundance and richness in pine forest burnt one year prior to the study to remove understorey vegetation with pine forest burnt two years prior to the study. We also examined the influence of fire on reptile assemblages in native vegetation, by comparing eucalypt woodland burnt two years prior to the study and unburnt for eight years. To quantify mechanisms driving differences in reptile richness and abundance among forest types and management regimes, we measured forest structure, the temperatures used by reptiles (operative temperature) and solar radiation, at replicate sites in all forest types and management regimes. Compared to native forests, pine forests had taller trees, lower shrub cover in the understorey, more and deeper exotic litter (other than pine), and were cooler and shadier. Reptile assemblages in pine forests were as rich as those in native forests, but pine assemblages were composed mainly of species that typically use closed-canopy rainforest and prefer cooler, shadier habitats. Burning did not appear to influence the assemblage structure of reptiles in native forest, but burning under pine was associated with increased skink abundance and species richness. Burned pine was not warmer or sunnier than unburned pine, a common driver of reptile abundance, so the shift in lizard use after burning may have been driven by structural differences in understorey vegetation, especially amounts of non-native litter, which were reduced by burning. Thus, burning for management under pine increased the abundance and richness of lizard assemblages using pine. Pine plantations do not support the snake diversity common to sclerophyllous native forests, but pine may have the potential to complement rainforest lizard diversity if appropriately managed.     

Nomographs for predicting crown fire initiation in Aleppo pine (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pinus halepensis</Emphasis> Mill.) forests

Nomographs that calculate the threshold values of surface fire parameters which lead to crown fire initiation were created by linking two separate fire behavior models: Van Wagner’s crown fire ignition criteria and Byram’s surface fire model. The nomographs were also based on the existing surface (fuel load, fuel heat content) and canopy (foliar moisture content, live crown base height) fuel models of Aleppo (Pinus halepensis Mill.) pine forests of Mediterranean Greece. The most important fire parameters for crown fire initiation that are calculated by the nomographs are the critical flame length and the forward spread rate of the surface fire. These parameters are readily observable in the field during fires. The nomographs provide a judicious way to assess whether a crown fire is likely to occur in a conifer forest stand. Although the fire behavior models used had limited testing and are based on certain assumptions, yet they are widely applied in forestry practice worldwide, as a basis for justified fire prevention and suppression planning.     

Spatial variability in stand structure and density-dependent mortality in newly established post-fire stands of a California closed-cone pine forest

Fire is an important process in California closed-cone pine forests; however spatial variability in post-fire stand dynamics of these forests is poorly understood. The 1995 Vision Fire in Point Reyes National Seashore burned over 5000 ha, initiating vigorous Pinus muricata (bishop pine) regeneration in areas that were forested prior to the fire but also serving as a catalyst for forest expansion into other locales. We examined the post-fire stand structure of P. muricata forest 14 years after fire in newly established stands where the forest has expanded across the burn landscape to determine the important factors driving variability in density, basal area, tree size, and mortality. Additionally, we estimated the self-thinning line at this point in stand development and compared the size-density relationship in this forest to the theorized (−1.605) log-log slope of Reineke’s Rule, which relates maximum stand density to average tree size. Following the fire, post-fire P. muricata density in the expanded forest ranged from 500 to 8900 live stems ha⁻¹ (median density = 1800 ha⁻¹). Post-fire tree density and basal area declined with increasing distance to individual pre-fire trees, but showed little variation with other environmental covariates. Self-thinning (density-dependent mortality) was observed in nearly all stands with post-fire density >1800 stems ha⁻¹, and post-fire P. muricata stands conformed to the size-density relationship predicted by Reineke’s Rule. This study demonstrates broad spatial variability in forest development following stand-replacing fires in California closed-cone pine forests, and highlights the importance of isolated pre-fire trees as drivers of stand establishment and development in serotinous conifers.     

Estimation of canopy fuel characteristics of Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis Mill.) forests in Greece based on common stand parameters

Canopy fuel characteristics that influence the initiation and spread of crown fires were measured in forty representative Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis Mill.) stands in Greece. Aleppo pine canopy fuels are characterized by low canopy base height (CBH) (2.0–6.5 m), while available canopy fuel load (CFL) (0.63–1.82 kg/m²) and canopy bulk density (CBD) (0.07–0.22 kg/m³) values are similar to those of other conifers worldwide. Regression equations for the estimation of canopy fuels were developed based on common stand parameters. Stand basal area was the best-fitted predictor for the estimation of CFL and CBD at stand level, explaining 77 and 74 % of the observed variation, respectively. Regression analysis failed to provide any significant estimates for the CBH. Prediction of canopy fuel characteristics based on stand basal area can be useful in fuel management and fire prevention planning since it and can be easily incorporated into existing forest inventory systems and can be used for the Kyoto protocol requirements of carbon changes in Aleppo pine forests located in Greek sites.     

Functional analysis of vegetation on alpine treeline ecotone in the Julian and Kamnik-Savinja Alps in Slovenia

Our study focused on the functional aspects of plant species and vegetation at the transition from larch (Larix decidua Mill.) forest to mountain pine (Pinus mugo Turra) stands on the alpine treeline ecotone. With increasing elevation, living conditions grow harsher, which is reflected in the plant species and functional trait composition of plant communities. At four different localities in the Slovenian Alps, relevés along an altitudinal gradient and according to vegetation type were made (European larch forests, larch trees-mountain pine shrubs, mountain pine shrubs), using standard Central European phytocoenological method. In the upper mountain pine belt, few differential species were found, since most species represented in mountain pine stands also occurred in the lower two vegetation belts, while there were many differential species in the lower forest belt. Species with considerable competitive ability and moderate stress tolerance dominated the upper treeline ecotone, whereas ruderality is poorly expressed. The importance of stress tolerance in plant strategies increased slightly in the mountain pine belt. Changes in the representation of some functional traits attributes were detected by vegetation belts, but complete species turnover did not occur. Changes in dominant life form involved greater cover of chamaephytes and nanophanerophytes in the upper mountain pine belt. Species with evergreen leaves dominated mountain pine stands and deciduous forest stands. The share of species with scleromorphic leaves increased in the direction of the mountain pine belt while the share of species with mesomorphic and hygromorphic leaves declined. Mountain pine stands create good conditions for the regeneration of tree species and colonisation by ecologically more demanding forest species while species of alpine grasslands withdraw on open areas. Since today’s treeline is lowered due to past human activity, an upward shift is expected. Also, considering the great importance of competition strategy, current conditions in mountain pine stands are favourable for future forest succession.     

Changes in wildfire severity from maritime pine woodland to contiguous forest types in the mountains of northwestern Portugal

Large and severe wildfires are now widespread in the Mediterranean Basin. Fire severity is important to ecosystem properties and processes and to forest management but it has been neglected by wildland fire research in Europe. In this study, we compare fire severity between maritime pine (PS) woodland and other forest (OF) types, identify other variables influent on fire severity, and describe its variation. We sampled contiguous, paired stands of PS and OF cover types – including deciduous and evergreen broadleaves and short-needled mountain conifers – that burned under very high to extreme fire danger in northwestern Portugal. Data on stand characteristics and fire severity metrics were collected in plots along transects perpendicular to the PS–OF boundary. Fire severity was rated in separate for the tree canopy, understorey vegetation and forest floor layers, and then an average (composite) fire severity rating was calculated. Fire intensity inferred from stem char height (adjusted for the effects of other factors) was highest in PS, followed by deciduous broadleaved woodland and short-needled conifer forest. With a few exceptions, all fire severity ratings were significantly different between PS and OF at all sites. Most fire severity metrics and ratings were correlated. The distance for fire severity minimization did not differ between OF types (median = 21 m). Variation in composite fire severity was accounted for by a classification tree (R² = 0.44) based on cover type (contributing with 51% to the overall explanation), stand variables, aspect, distance to the PS–OF edge and fire spread pattern. Except for a more immediate decline in deciduous broadleaves, fire severity rating was not affected by OF type and tended to decrease in more mature stands and moister aspects. The fire severity moderation from PS to OF was compounded by a dominant pattern of down slope fire propagation into moister topographical positions, exacerbating the fuel effect implicit in the cover type change. The results are consistent with fire hazard and fire incidence studies and support conventional knowledge that advocates the expansion of broadleaved deciduous or evergreen forest as a means to achieve more fire-resilient ecosystems and landscapes.     

Controlled Burning under Pines—A Preliminary Fuel Classification System for Plantations in the Cape

Forest fire behaviour, that is the rate of advance, uniformity of flame height and intensity, is closely related to the fuel type. From a number of controlled burns in pine stands in the Cape Province it has become evident that a basic fuel classification system is necessary to achieve success in controlled burning operations.

The proposed system is limited to the more common fuel types found in pine stands in the Cape. Five major fuel types have been identified and are based on the Queensland fuel classification system. In this system the understorey composition, fuel depth and fuel load are the most important fuel factors (Anon 1976).     

Variation in post-wildfire regeneration of boreal mixedwood forests: underlying factors and implications for natural disturbance-based management

To test the direct regeneration hypothesis and support natural disturbance-based forest management we characterized the structure and composition of boreal mixedwood forests regenerating after large wildfires and examined the influence of pre-fire stand composition and post-fire competing vegetation. In stands which had been deciduous (Populus sp.)-dominated, conifer (white spruce)-dominated, or mixed pre-fire we measured regeneration stocking (presence in 10 m² plots), density and height 10–20 years post-burn in five wildfires in Alberta, Canada. Most plots regenerated to the deciduous or mixed stocking types; plots in the older fire and in stands that were pure conifer pre-fire had higher amounts of conifer regeneration. Surprisingly, regeneration in pre-fire ‘pure’ white spruce stands was most often to pine, although these had not been recorded in the pre-fire inventory. Pre-fire deciduous stands were the most resilient in that poplar species dominated their post-fire regeneration in terms of stocking, density and height. These stands also had the highest diversity of regenerating tree species and the most unstocked plots. High grass cover negatively affected regeneration density of both deciduous and conifer trees. Our results demonstrate the natural occurrence of regeneration gaps, pre- to post-fire changes in forest composition, and high variation in post-fire regeneration composition. These should be taken into consideration when developing goals for post-harvest regeneration mimicking natural disturbance.     

The effect of stand age on the accumulation of nutrients in the aboveground components of an Aleppo pine ecosystem

Nutrient dynamics of an Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis, Mill.) ecosystem located in the Kassandra peninsula, Central Macedonia, Northern Greece, were studied using a chronosequence approach. The nutrient composition of the Aleppo pine trees, the understory evergreen broadleaves and forest floor in adjacent stands of 23, 48, 70 and over 100 years old was determined to estimate postfire nutrient losses. The concentration of nutrients in the Aleppo pine trees, except of Ca, was reduced with increasing stand age. Ca was the most abundant nutrient in the aboveground vegetation and in forest litter, followed by N, K, Mg and P. The accumulation of nutrients in the aboveground biomass was positively related to stand age. For younger stands nutrient accumulation was considerably larger in the understory vegetation as compared to the pines, due to substantial enhancement of the understory biomass and the number of understory species present. In middle-aged stands, however, nutrient accumulation in the understory and overstory vegetation reached a balance. In addition, considerable quantities of nutrients have been accumulated in the forest floor particularly in stands of 48 years old. Therefore, any destruction during the period of maximum nutrient accumulation in the forest floor will cause degradation of the ecosystem. It is postulated that the competition for nutrients between overstory and understory vegetation may be as important as competition in soil. Forest management practices leading to the direct conversion of the understory biomass into littermass would be of great significance for the sustainability of the Aleppo pine ecosystem.     

Low- to moderate-severity historical fires promoted high tree growth in a boreal Scots pine forest of Norway

Abstract

Fire is the most important ecological factor governing boreal forest stand dynamics. In low- to moderate-severity fires, the post-fire growth of the surviving trees varies according to fire frequency, intensity and site factors. Little is known about the growth responses of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) following fires in boreal forests. We quantified changes in tree growth in the years following 61 historical forest fires (between 1210 and 1866) in tree-ring series collected from fire-scarred Scots pine trees, snags and stumps in Trillemarka nature reserve in south-central Norway. Basal area increment 10 years pre-, 5 years post-, and 11–20 years post-fire were calculated for 439 fire scars in 225 wood samples. We found a slight temporary growth reduction 5 years post-fire followed by a marked growth increase 11–20 years post-fire. Beyond 20 years post-fire, the long-term tree growth declined steadily up to approximately 120 years. Our results indicate that recurring fires maintained high tree growth in remnant Scots pines, most probably due to a reduction in tree density and thus decreased competition.     

Quantifying fine fuel dynamics and structure in dry eucalypt forest (Eucalyptus marginata) in Western Australia for fire management

Techniques for rapid visual assessment of fuel characteristics have a broad range of applications in wildland fire management and research. We developed and tested a technique for assessing forest fuels which provides hazard ratings for distinct layers within the overall fuel complex, including bark, elevated shrubs, near-surface and surface (forest litter) fuels. These layers are comprised predominantly of fine fuel particles <6 mm diameter. The technique was used to model fuel accumulation in dry eucalypt forest of Eucalyptus marginata at two locations with contrasting understorey structures. We found that visual fuel hazard ratings described patterns of fuel dynamics over time in a similar fashion to models for fuel load accumulation. Visual hazard ratings can be related qualitatively to factors that reflect the difficulty of fire suppression by experienced fire fighters including visibility through the forest, access, difficulty of working machinery, flame height and spotting potential. The ability to relate hazard ratings to fire spread prediction needs to be tested.     

Coarse woody debris dynamics in a post-fire jack pine chronosequence and its relation with site productivity

The long-term relationships between coarse woody debris (CWD) dynamics, soil characteristics and site productivity have, so far, received little attention. The objectives of the study were to describe CWD dynamics along a post-fire chronosequence (43–86 years after fire) in jack pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.) stands, assess the importance of buried CWD in terms of soil available water holding capacity (AWHC), and investigate relationships between CWD, AWHC, nutrient retention and site productivity.

Twelve jack pine stands on sandy, mesic sites of glaciolacustrine origin were surveyed. Buried wood volume within the forest floor varied between 1 and 57 m³ ha⁻¹ (4–92% of total site CWD volume) and showed no relationship with time. Downed log mass accumulation followed a “U shaped” successional pattern with time since fire. Buried wood AWHC was negligible compared with that of the 0–20 cm mineral soil layer. The most productive sites were characterised by higher forest floor dry weight, effective CEC and water holding capacity in the mineral soil. Path analyses of relationships between organic matter content, CWD and forest floor CEC showed that CEC was conditioned by forest floor organic matter and buried wood content.