Oral disorders of exotic ungulates.

There are many species classified as ungulates that possess a large variety of dental formulae and dental adaptations. Despite the diversity found within the ungulate group, the list of dental abnormalities remains short. Regardless of the contributing factors, cases of aveolitis accompanied by osteomyelitis ("lumpy jaw") occur more frequently than some of the other dental problems that are encountered in these species (fractures of tusks/canines, malocclusion, eruption cysts). Commonly, treatment of "lumpy jaw" requires exodontia with additional antibiotic therapy using a drug that is appropriate for the type of infection and the species of animal. Regardless of the dental abnormality, anesthetic, diagnostic, and treatment considerations typically provide the greatest challenge to the clinician in these cases.     

Skin diseases of rodents and small exotic mammals.

Small exotic mammals and rodents are becoming popular pets in the United States. Like most other exotics, the popularity of these animals has vastly preceded the accumulation of practical husbandry and veterinary information available about them. Several dermatologic conditions have been described in most rodents and small exotic mammals; however, the practitioner can assume that more exist that have not yet been diagnosed or documented. It is not unreasonable to assume that rodents and small exotic mammals could be affected by many of the same dermatologic conditions well described in other animals. Veterinarians are encouraged always to apply the same diagnostic protocols used to work up skin problems in dogs and cats when presented with an exotic pet with a dermatologic disease.     

Oral biology and disorders of lagomorphs.

Rabbit medicine, and dentistry in particular, is still at an early stage of development. With an understanding of the underlying oral physiology it is possible to devise an appropriate treatment regime for most dental problems after the nature and extent of disease has been assessed. Although many of the dental problems that are seen in practice cannot be cured, most can be controlled or managed to allow the affected rabbit to maintain a good quality of life. The continuously growing nature of the teeth makes recurrence and progression of problems the norm, so owner education and ongoing monitoring of animals is essential. By assessing the effects, beneficial or otherwise, of out treatments and communicating this to others, we will develop our knowledge and skills. Several treatments that are suggested in this article must be considered as "experimental" because they have not been assessed in large numbers of animals. If they work for you, or more importantly, if you find unexpected complications with a treatment method (as has happened with the use of calcium hydroxide paste treatment of abscess cavities) then please publicize the fact so that others can avoid the problem. Until the message on prevention can be reliably transmitted to owners, we will continue to have oral and dental problems to manage. After confidence and experience has been gained in anesthetizing rabbits it is possible to refine one's dental skills to be able to rapidly perform a thorough examination and basic treatments. Major and complex treatments require careful consideration because they may add to the animal's problems, rather than improving the situation. The best method for learning rabbit dentistry is to routinely perform postmortem examinations following euthanasia of affected animals, and spend an hour or two practicing handling the instruments and performing procedures on a cadaver. If you are not confident in your ability or do not have the best equipment for the job, the client should be informed and offered the opportunity to be referral to a "specialist."     

Common procedures in hedgehogs, prairie dogs, exotic rodents, and companion marsupials.

Nondomesticated species are commonly being kept as companion animals. These include the African pygmy hedgehog (Atelerix albi-ventris), the North American black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys lu-dovicianus), and exotic rodents such as the degu (Octodon degus)and duprasi or fat-tailed gerbil (Pachyuromys duprasi). Common companion marsupials include the sugar glider (Petaurus breviceps),Bennett's or Tammar (Dama) wallabies (Macropus rufogriseus rufo-griseus and Macropus eugenii, respectively), the Brazilian or South American gray short-tailed opossum (Monodelphis domestica), and the North American Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana).Although many of these animals are now bred domestically and are fairly docile when human-raised, they are essentially wild animals and hence have strong instincts to hide illness and pain.     

Oral biology and beak disorders of birds.

The beak, or bill, of the bird is a complicated structure. This article describes beak anatomy as well as disorders of the beak, including trauma and diseases.     

Oral biology and disorders of tusked mammals.

Tusked mammals can be terrestrial or aquatic. Many of these magnificent animals are kept in captivity all over the world. Functions of tusks vary as much as the species in which they occur. Dental anomalies and disorders of tusks and the rest of the dentition in these mammals were discussed, with an emphasis on the elephant. The tusk anatomy, with its large, conically-shaped pulp, makes it an ideal tooth for partial pulpectomy treatment in trauma cases where the pulp is exposed. Surgical techniques for tusks have been developed and were discussed. Oral tumors occur, but are rare.     

Oral, dental, and beak disorders of reptiles.

Each species of reptile has evolved unique characteristics that are associated with their oral cavity, dentition, tongue, glands, and methods of mastication. These developments have provided each with an opportunity to interact with their surroundings. In captivity, the developmental relationship is often severed by the introduction of artificial surroundings and inappropriate husbandry. These changes predispose the animals to many stresses and disorders. Disorders of the oral cavity are often a representation of what is occurring systemically. Bacterial, viral, fungal, parasitic, neoplastic, and nutritional causes of disorders of the oral cavity in reptilian species are probably underestimated and likely cause a higher incidence of morbidity and mortality than has been reported. The misinformation that clients receive regarding husbandry may directly correlate with the frequency of oral diseases seen in a clinical setting. Prevention of disease of the oral cavity is primarily through providing appropriate environmental conditions and diet.     

Nutrition of rodents.

Access to a diet that provides adequate nutrition is one of the most important environmental factors influencing the well-being of rodent colonies. The dietary ingredient and nutrient composition, as well as the potential biological and chemical contaminant concentrations, are factors for consideration in selecting diets for a specific rodent colony. Estimated nutrient requirements have been published for the rodent species that are commonly used in biomedical research. The nutrient concentrations in adequate diets for other captive rodent species that are not used in biomedical research are more difficult to obtain. However, reasonable estimates of their nutrient requirements can be obtained by extrapolation of data from rodent species of a similar metabolic weight and size or from nutrient concentrations of diets that have a history of acceptable performance in the species of interest. Captive rodent colonies should be provided with nutritionally balanced diets with only limited amounts of succulent foodstuffs. The practice of feeding rodent colonies specific cereal grains is discouraged, since no single grain provides a balanced rodent diet.     

Small exotic mammal orthopedics.

The basic principles of orthopedic repair are the same for small exotic mammals as for the canine or feline patient. This article assists the clinician in determining the most appropriate method of fixation and maximizes the probability of a favorable outcome.     

Endocrine diseases of rodents.

The frequency of documented endocrine diseases in rodents and other small mammals varies considerably among the species maintained as pets, biomedical research animals, or display animals in zoos. The clinical diagnosis of endocrine diseases almost never occurs in free-ranging animals in their native habitat. Feral animals that have clinical endocrine disease, such as neoplasia, adrenal cortical hyperplasia, or diabetes, would exhibit clinical signs of altered behavior that would result in their removal by predators. The diagnosis of endocrine disease thus takes place in the relatively protective environment of captivity. This observation should forewarn pet owners and clinicians caring for these animals that the environment contributes to the development of endocrine diseases in these animals.     

Surgical oncology of exotic animals.

This article reviews the initial management of exotic patients with amass. The important principles of the initial workup, including how to get a definitive diagnosis and how to stage the extent of the disease are covered. There are many biopsy instruments currently available, and the advantages and disadvantages of these are presented. Principles of tumor excision and marking the tissue sampled are also discussed. It is important to submit all of the tissue excised and evaluate the surgical margins for the presence of neoplastic cells, even if the tumor seems too small to put in the sample vial. Follow-up for patients that have had cancer surgery is also reviewed, along with the effects of adjunct therapies on wound healing.     

Clinical evaluation of rodents.

The clinical examination of small rodents is like that of more conventional pets in that the same systematic approach is used to arrive at a problem list. The difference with these species is that their diminutive size, high metabolic rate, and lack of patience may be problematic for the clinician. With continued practice and patience, veterinarians can begin to feel comfortable in adding small rodents to the growing components of their practices.     

Respiratory diseases of rodents.

Practitioners may be called on to treat rodents with respiratory diseases or to advise clients concerning the care of these rodents. Respiratory diseases of mice, rats, guinea pigs, and Syrian hamsters are well known because of the use of these species in research, whereas few or no reports of respiratory disease in rodents of other species exist. Features of the respiratory diseases of these four commonly encountered species are reviewed, including causes; clinical signs; diagnostic procedures; preventive measures; and, where appropriate, therapies.     

Therapeutics of companion exotic marsupials.

Exotic marsupials are becoming popular companion pets, yet little pharmacologic information is available to the practitioner. Species include sugar gliders (Petarus breviceps), South American (Brazilian) short-tailed opossums (Monodelphis domestica), brushtail possum or "phalanger" (Trichosurus vulpecula), and wallabies: Bennett's (Macropus rufogriseus rufogriseus) and Tammar or Dama (Macropus eugenii). Guidelines for logical choices of medications based on allometric scaling, gastrointestinal tract anatomy and physiology, and liver metabolism are given. An example of scaling and a formulary based on anecdotal, published medications are provided.     

Oral biology and disorders of chiroptera, insectivores, monotremes, and marsupials.

Oral disease occurs in all species, from the tiny marsupial mouse to the large red kangaroo, and from the smallest mole to the largest bat. Although there has been little research done in most of the species in this article, the whole range of dental and oral diseases has been recorded, including periodontal disease, caries, and many variations in position and number of teeth. Hopefully, the interest in these species will continue and further study will enable us to understand these diseases more thoroughly.     

Mycobacteria isolated from exotic animals.

Mycobacteria were isolated from 263 of 474 specimens submitted from captive exotic (nondomesticated) animals over a 5-year period. Mycobacterium avium was isolated from 128 animals originating in 13 states and the District of Columbia; serotype 1 accounted for 65 of the isolations. Mycobacterium bovi was isolated from 74 animals in 7 zoos, 7 game parks, and 4 primate colonies in 1, states: Mycobacterium tuberculosis was isolated from 29 animals originating 9 stats; and Mycobacterium fortuitum, Mycobacterium chelonei, Mycobacterium scrofulaceum, and Mycobacterium spp. The widespread occurrence of tuberculosis in exotic animals maintained in captivity emphasizes the public health importance of these infections.