Spatial variability of heavy metals in irrigated alfalfa fields in the upper Rio Grande River basin

Reduced quality of wastewater discharged into the Rio Grande River is reported to be the cause of crop contamination and heavy metal transport onto fertile soils. This study was conducted to characterize Cd, Pb, Ni, Zn, Cr, and Co concentrations in two alfalfa (Medicago saliva L.) fields irrigated with river water (in Texas) or wastewater mixed with river water (in Mexico) and to examine spatial variability of acid-extractable metal deposition in soil and in uptake by alfalfa. Multiple transects were established in both fields for intensive forage collection and soil sampling to depths of 1.2 m, with spacing every 7.6 or 15.2 m. Metal concentrations rarely exceeded 20 mg kg⁻¹ with the exception of Zn. Relative metal concentrations were in the order Zn > Cr > Ni > Pb > Co > Cd in both fields, and were highly correlated with clay content within the plow zone. Linear and spherical variogram models best described surface metal deposition with spatial dependence > 100 m with regard to irrigation delivery. However, increasing metal concentrations below the plow zone at the Texas site, inconsistent geostatistical trends for soil Zn and Ni, and no association of Pb with soil texture suggested that irrigation delivery was not the exclusive transport source. Estimated metal loads from river water over a 50-year period suggested that irrigation may account for up to 31 % of surface metals. It is likely that atmospheric fallout from a local ore smelter and indigenous background levels significantly contributed to observed soil metal levels. Metal concentrations in unwashed alfalfa forage tissue were at least five times less than those in soil and showed no consistent association with soil concentrations. Metal concentrations in alfalfa forage posed no toxicity threat to animals or public health. Blending wastewaters in the Rio Grande River and canal system has diluted heavy metals to low concentrations for irrigation, but not to more stringent levels for fish and wildlife. Degraded waters could be diverted from the river and directly used for irrigation under careful water and soil management.     

Using remote sensing to evaluate the spatial variability of evapotranspiration and crop coefficient in the lower Rio Grande Valley,New Mexico

Pecan is a major crop in the lower Rio Grande Valley (LRGV), New Mexico. Currently, about 11,000 ha of pecan orchards at various stages of growth are consuming about 40% of irrigation water in the area. Pecan evapotranspiration (ET) varies with age, canopy cover, soil type and method of water management. There is a need for better quantification of pecan ET for the purpose of water rights adjudication, watershed management and agronomical practices. This paper describes a process where remote sensing information from Landsat-5 and Landsat-7 were combined with ground level measurements to estimate pecan ET and field scale actual crop coefficient (K _c) for the LRGV. The results showed that annual pecan water use for 279 fields ranged from 498 to 1,259 mm with an average water use of 1,054 mm. For fields with NDVI > 0.6 (normalized difference vegetation index), which represented mature orchards (total of 232 fields), the annual water use ranged from 771 to 1,259 mm with an average water use of 1,077 mm. The results from remote sensing model compared reasonably well with ground level ET values determined by an eddy covariance system in a mature pecan orchard with an average error of 4% and the standard error of estimate (SEE) ranging from 0.91 to 1.06 mm/day. A small fraction (5%) of the pecan fields were within the range of maximum ET and K _c.     

Spatial variability of rainfall and yield of maize in a semiarid region

The influence of nonuniform rainfall distribution patterns on the variability of maize yield and soil water use was studied with the aid of the analyses of rainfall and evapotranspiration data of a semiarid region. The analyses enabled us to define homogeneous areas of soil water availability through the application of a geostatistic algorithm developed for the computation of semivariograms, autocorrelograms and crosscorrelation functions.Water economy and yield of nonirrigated maize grown at each homogeneous area is evaluated through the application of a modification of Hanks' yield—evapotranspiration model.To optimize rainfall use by the crop under semiarid conditions, the effect of differences in soil water availability and maize varietal responses to water stress are evaluated. Results indicate that, when these differences are considered in the selection of maize cultivars, a significant increment in total regional production can be expected.     

Assessing basin irrigation and scheduling strategies for saving irrigation water and controlling salinity in the upper Yellow River Basin, China

Water saving in irrigation is a key concern in the Yellow River basin. Excessive water diversions for irrigation waste water and produce waterlogging problems during the crop season and soil salinization in low lands. Supply control and inadequate functionality of the drainage system were identified as main factors for poor water management at farm level. Their improvement condition the adoption of water saving and salinity control practices. Focusing on the farm scale, studies to assess the potential for water savings included: (a) field evaluation of current basin irrigation practices and further use of the simulation models SRFR and SIRMOD to generate alternative improvements for the surface irrigation systems and (b) the use of the ISAREG model to simulate the present and improved irrigation scheduling alternatives taking into consideration salinity control. Models were used interactively to define alternatives for the irrigation systems and scheduling that would minimize percolation and produce water savings. Foreseen improvements refer to basin inflow discharges, land leveling and irrigation scheduling that could result in water savings of 33% relative to actual demand. These improvements would also reduce percolation and maintain water table depths below 1 m thereby reducing soil salinization.     

Intra-annual variability in the contribution of tile drains to basin discharge and phosphorus export in a first-order agricultural catchment

This study examines spatiotemporal variability (event-based, seasonal) in the contribution of drainage tiles within a basin to basin hydrologic discharge and soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) and total phosphorus (TP) export over a period of 1 year. Tile discharge was highly variable at both moderate (wet versus dry periods) and smaller (within-event) temporal scales, accounting for 0-90% of basin discharge at any given time. An estimated 42% of basin annual discharge originated from drainage tiles, the majority of which occurred during the winter and spring months. Concentrations of SRP and TP in drainage tile effluent were also highly variable in space and time (1-2850 μg SRP L⁻¹, 5-8275 μg TP L⁻¹). Higher concentrations of SRP and TP were linked to fields receiving manure compared to fields receiving inorganic fertilizers. SRP export from tiles accounted for 118% of basin SRP export on average, although their contribution to basin SRP export ranged from 4 to 344% on 32 discrete dates during which all tiles in the basin were sampled for hydrochemistry. On the same 32 dates, tiles accounted for an average of 43% of basin TP export, although this ranged from 0 to 200%. Management options such as tile plugs and optimizing the timing and application rates of fertilizer should be explored to minimize nutrient export from tiles.     

Water requirements of maize in the middle Heihe River basin, China

As part of an intercomparison study on crop evapotranspiration (ET_c), six methods for estimating ET_c have been applied to maize field in the middle Heihe River basin, China. The ET_c was estimated by the soil water balance and Bowen ratio-energy balance methods while the Priestley-Taylor, Penman, Penman-Monteith and Hargreaves methods were used for estimating the reference evapotranspiration (ET₀). The results showed that the trend of ET_c was very similar, while the differences were significant among the different methods. The variations of ET_c were closely related to the LAI as well as to the meteorological features. The ET_c for the Bowen ratio-energy balance, Penman, Penman-Monteith, soil water balance, Priestley-Taylor and Hargreaves methods totaled 777.75, 693.13, 618.34, 615.67, 560.31 and 552.07 mm, respectively, with the daily mean values for 5.26, 4.68, 4.18, 4.16, 3.79 and 3.73 mm day⁻¹. The Penman-Monteith method provided fairly good estimation of ET_o as compared with the Priestley-Taylor, Penman, Hargreaves methods. By contrast with the Penman-Monteith method, the Bowen ratio-energy balance and Penman methods were 25.8% and 12.0% higher, while the Priestley-Taylor and Hargreaves methods were 9.4% and 10.7% lower, respectively. Therefore, the Hargreaves and Priestley-Taylor methods were the alternative ET_c methods in arid regions of Northwest China.     

黄河三角洲地区土壤容重空间变异性分析

以黄河三角洲地区典型区域作为研究对象,运用传统统计学和地统计学相结合的方法研究了不同土层土壤容重的空间变异特征。结果表明:研究区各层土壤表现出一定的紧实趋势,土壤容重均属于弱变异强度。受结构性与随机性因素的共同作用,土壤容重均表现为中等的空间相关性。分维数分析表明,各层土壤容重的空间依赖性小,含黏层厚度与分布的不均一性是引起其空间异质性的关键原因。Kriging插值结果表明,土壤容重的空间分布与土壤质地密切相关,不同层次土壤容重在一定范围内表现出相似的空间分布规律。进一步的相关性分析表明各层土壤容重间存在极显著的正相关关系。通过研究不同层次土壤容重的空间变异性,获取区域土壤容重空间分布图,为该地区中、低产地及障碍土壤的分区管理和治理改良提供一定的参考依据。     

滦河流域月降雨空间变异性研究

介绍了 权重系数法推求普通kriging的理论半变异函数模型参数，并将这种方法应用到滦河流域月降雨空间变异性研究中，然后采用交叉验证法检验了kriging法的插值效果。根据计算结果分析可知，各月变程变化范围较大，其中8月份变程最大，为178km，说明该月降雨空间变异性最小。同时，各个月份的 比值范围在0～23.08%之间，这表明滦河流域降雨量具有较强的空间相关性。     

近60年叶尔羌河流域干旱演变特征分析

旱涝灾害是制约叶尔羌河流域经济发展的重要因素,为预测研究区旱涝灾害变化趋势,本文选取1951—2015年叶尔羌河流域4个气象站的逐月降水量数据,利用标准化降水指数和小波分析方法,分析近60年来研究区旱涝演变特征.结果表明:该区旱涝事件发生频率高,不同时间尺度旱涝事件发生的平均频率为42.6%;在年代际尺度上,20世纪70年代干旱事件发生的频率最高,为25.2%;其次是2001—2015年,频率为22.7%,90年代洪涝事件发生的频率最高,为31%;研究区旱涝变化有4个特征时间尺度,分别为4年、10年、25年和31年,预测未来几年降水仍然偏多.     

Performance of basin irrigation in the Lower Tunuyán River in Mendoza,Argentina

This paper results from the evaluation of irrigation in 37 different basins planted with perennial crops in the oasis irrigated by the Lower Tunuyán River in Mendoza, Argentina. The basins were evaluated by calculating management parameters through volumetric analysis. The results of this analysis were compared with the values obtained by means of the BRDRFLW mathematical model (Strelkoff, 1985). Four main elements were considered for analysis: application efficiency (ea), cut-off time (Tco), length (L), and net depth (DR), Multiple correlations were established and transferred to the graphics, which are simple and suitable for use by extensionists and farmers interested in improving basin irrigation efficiency.     

Impacts of climate variability on reference evapotranspiration over 58 years in the Haihe river basin of north China

Physically, evaporative demand is driven by net radiation (R_n), vapour pressure (e_a), wind speed (u₂), and air temperature (T_a), each of which changes over time. By analyzing temporal variations in reference evapotranspiration (ET₀), improved understanding of the impacts of climate change on hydrological processes can be obtained. In this study, variations in ET₀ over 58 years (1950-2007) at 34 stations in the Haihe river basin of China were analyzed. ET₀ was calculated by the FAO Penman-Monteith formula. Calculation of Kendall rank coefficient was done by analyzing the annual and seasonal trends in ET₀ derived from its dependent climate variables. Inverse distance weighting (IDW) was used to analyze the spatial variation in annual and seasonal ET₀, and in each climate variable. An attribution analysis was performed to quantify the contribution of each input variable to ET₀ variation. The results showed that ET₀ gradually decreased in the whole basin over the 58 years at a rate of −1.0 mm yr⁻², at the same time, R_n, u₂ and precipitation also decreased. Changes in ET₀ were attributed to the variations in net radiation (−0.9 mm yr⁻²), vapour pressure (−0.5 mm yr⁻²), wind speed (−1.3 mm yr⁻²) and air temperature (1.7 mm yr⁻²). Looking at all data on a month by month basis, we found that T_a had a positive effect on dET₀/dt (the derivative of reference evapotranspiration to time) and R_n and u₂ had negative effects on dET₀/dt. While changes in air temperature were found to produce a large increase in dET₀/dt, changes in other key variables each reduced rates, resulting in an overall negative trend in dET₀/dt.     

Spatial and temporal trends of water productivity in the lower Mekong River Basin

We estimate the physical and economic water productivities of rice and upland crops grown in the Lower Mekong River Basin and we examine their spatial and temporal trends. We discuss the constraints to low productivity, suggest measures for improvement and show the future productivity requirements for food security for increased population. Both the physical and economic water productivities of rice are higher in Vietnam, moderate in Laos, and lower in Thailand and Cambodia. In contrast, the physical water productivities of upland crops such as sugarcane and maize are highest in Thailand. The economic water productivity of upland crops is higher in Laos followed by Vietnam, Cambodia and Thailand, and is much higher than that of rice. However, the economic productivity of all crops is dominated by the productivity of rice, particularly lowland rainfed rice, which is the dominant crop in the Lower Basin. The intra-regional variation (among the provinces within a country) of productivity is not substantial. There is an increasing trend of both physical and economic water productivity in all four riparian countries; however, the increase is more prominent in Laos and Vietnam. The economic productivity of upland crops is much higher than that of rice and therefore cultivation of more upland crops can significantly increase farm-level incomes, with positive impacts on reducing poverty. Increasing upland crops areas is unlikely to have any impact on the food security of the basin. The current rate of increase of both production and productivity of rice is considerably greater than the rate required to feed the expected extra population by 2050, suggesting that food security is not threatened by the population increase. There appears to be considerable scope to increase productivity and maintain the export potential of the basin.     

近50a来黄河流域温度和降水基本特征和变化趋势分析

利用黄河流域87个代表气象站1961－2010年的逐日温度和降水观测资料,采用算术平均、线性倾向估计、滑动平均方法对流域年、季和年代际温度和降水特点和变化趋势进行分析。结果表明：流域多年平均温度为6.96℃,总体呈东高西低、南高北低的空间分布特征。年平均温度呈明显上升趋势,线性倾向率为0.03℃/a;流域季节温度均呈明显增加趋势,冬季温度增加较为明显,夏季温度增加相对较低。流域多年平均降水为448mm,降水空间分布由东南向西北呈带状递减趋势。流域年平均降水呈不显著的增加趋势,线性倾向率为-0.97mm/a,流域季节降水增减变化趋势不明显,变化较为复杂。     

Assessing the groundwater dynamics and impacts of water saving in the Hetao Irrigation District, Yellow River basin

Water resources allocated to the agricultural sector in the Yellow River basin are being reduced due to severe water scarcity and increased demand by the non-agricultural sectors. In large-scale irrigation districts, the application of water-saving practices, e.g., improving the canal system, using water-saving irrigation technology and adjusting cropping patterns, is required for the sustainable agricultural development and the river basin environmental equilibrium. Adopting water-saving practices leads to lowering the groundwater table and to controlling salinity impacts related to excessive irrigation. However, assessing the effects of water-saving practices on the groundwater system requires further investigation. The Jiefangzha Irrigation Scheme of the Hetao Irrigation District is used as a case study for analyzing the temporal and spatial dynamics of the groundwater table. A lumped parameter groundwater balance model has been developed with this purpose and to assess impacts of various water-saving practices. The model was calibrated with monthly datasets relative to the non-frozen periods of 1997-1999 and validated with datasets from 2000 to 2002. Results indicate that canal seepage and deep percolation account for respectively 48% and 44% of the annual groundwater recharge. Groundwater discharge by direct evaporation and plant roots uptake represents 82% of the total annual groundwater discharge. After validation, the model was applied to assess the impacts of various canal and farm irrigation water-saving practices. It was observed that improvements in the canal system (e.g., canal lining, upgrading the hydraulic regulation and control structures, improving delivery schedules) might lower the groundwater table by 0.28-0.48 m, depending upon the level of implementation of these measures. Higher declines of the groundwater table are predicted when water-saving technologies are applied at both the canal and the farm systems. That decline of the water table favours salinity control and reduces capillary rise, thus reducing the groundwater evaporation and uptake by plant roots; that reduction may attain 128 mm. However, predictions may change depending on the way how water-saving measures are applied, which may be different of assumptions made; therefore, there is the need to perform a follow-up of the interventions in order to update predictions. Results indicate the need for appropriate research leading to improved irrigation management when the decline of the groundwater level will reduce groundwater contribution to vegetation growth.     

基于突变级数模型的玛纳斯河流域水资源可持续利用评价

水资源可持续利用能力评价是世界普遍关注的热点问题.本文以新疆玛纳斯河流域为例,构建了水资源可持续利用评价指标体系,该体系由水资源系统、社会系统、经济系统和生态环境系统4个子系统13项指标组成,将水资源可持续利用水平划分为高中低3类.采用突变级数法与改进障碍因子诊断模型对研究区不同时期水资源可持续利用水平进行评价,结果表明:不同时期(2000年、2010年与2020年),研究区水资源可持续利用水平均处于中等水平(综合值为0.689),为Ⅱ级,但其综合值由2000年的0.689提升至2020年的0.829;水资源开发利用率过高、单位面积水资源量不足与林草覆盖率较低,已成为制约研究区水资源可持续利用的普遍问题.研究结果为区域水资源优化配置提供了重要参考.     

Irrigation requirements and transpiration coupling to the atmosphere of a citrus orchard in Southern Brazil

Crop evapotranspiration (ETc) was measured as evaporative heat flux from an irrigated acid lime orchard (Citrus latifolia Tanaka) using the aerodynamic method. Crop transpiration (T) was determined by a stem heat balance method. The irrigation requirements were determined by comparing the orchard evapotranspiration (ETc) and T with the reference evapotranspiration (ETo) derived from the Penman-Monteith equation, and the irrigation requirements were expressed as ETc/ETo (Kc) and T/ETo (Kcb) ratios. The influence of inter-row vegetation on the ETc was analyzed because the measurements were taken during the summer and winter, which are periods with different regional soil water content. In this study, the average Kc values obtained were 0.65 and 0.24 for the summer and winter, respectively. The strong coupling of citrus trees to the atmosphere and the sensitivity of citrus plants to large vapor pressure deficits and air/leaf temperatures caused variations in the Kcb in relation to the ETo ranges. During the summer, the Kcb value ranged from 0.34 when the ETo exceeded 5 mm d⁻¹ to 0.46 when the ETo was less than 3 mm d⁻¹.     

黄河流域农业系统水资源价值及其空间分布研究

【目的】分析黄河流域农业系统水资源空间分布特征。【方法】以黄河流域为研究对象,通过能值理论与方法、空间自相关分析法及空间滞后回归模型,研究了农业系统水资源价值空间分布特征及其主要影响因素。【结果】①农业系统水资源价值介于4.01～6.10元/m~3,流域中下游价值较高;②农业系统水资源价值全局莫兰(Moran)指数为0.277 2,呈空间正向自相关特征;主要以高值集聚型(H-H)聚集在流域中下游;③农业系统水资源价值空间变化的主要影响因素为GDP、海拔、用水量。【结论】以价值引导水资源分配,增加流域中下游农业用水有助于提高流域整体水资源农业生产效益。     

Online-monitoring of tree water stress in a hedgerow olive orchard using the leaf patch clamp pressure probe

The need for sophisticated irrigation strategies in fruit tree orchards has led to an increasing interest in reliable and robust sensor technology that allows automatic and continuous recording of the water stress of trees under field conditions. In this work we have evaluated the potential of the leaf patch clamp pressure (LPCP) probe for monitoring water stress in a 4-year-old ‘Arbequina’ hedgerow olive orchard with 1667 trees ha⁻¹. The leaf patch output pressure (P_p) measured by the LPCP probe is inversely correlated with the leaf turgor pressure (>50 kPa). Measurements of P_p were made over the entire irrigation season of 2010 (April to November) on control trees, irrigated up to 100% of the crop water needs (ET_c), and on trees under two regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) strategies. The 60RDI trees received 59.2% of ET_c and the 30RDI trees received 29.4% of ET_c. In the case of the RDI trees the irrigation amounts were particularly low during July and August, when the trees are less sensitive to water stress. At severe water stress levels (values of stem water potential dropped below ca. −1.70 MPa; turgor pressure < 50 kPa) half-inversed or completely inversed diurnal P_p curves were observed. Reason for these phenomena is the accumulation of air in the leaves. These phenomena were reversible. Normal diurnal P_p profiles were recorded within a few days after rewatering, the number depending on the level of water stress previously reached. This indicates re-establishment of turgescence of the leaf cells. Crucial information about severe water stress was derived from the inversed diurnal P_p curves. In addition P_p values measured on representative trees of all treatments were compared with balancing pressure (P_b) values recorded with a pressure chamber on leaves taken from the same trees or neighbored trees exposed to the same irrigation strategies. Concomitant diurnal P_b measurements were performed in June and September, i.e. before and after the period of great water stress subjected to RDI trees. Results showed close relationships between P_p and P_b, suggesting that the pressure chamber measures relative turgor pressure changes as the LPCP probe. Therefore the probe seems to be an advantageous alternative to the pressure chamber for monitoring tree water status in hedgerow olive tree orchards.     

Livestock water productivity in mixed crop–livestock farming systems of the Blue Nile basin: Assessing variability and prospects for improvement

Water scarcity is a major factor limiting food production. Improving Livestock Water Productivity (LWP) is one of the approaches to address those problems. LWP is defined as the ratio of livestock’s beneficial outputs and services to water depleted in their production. Increasing LWP can help achieve more production per unit of water depleted. In this study we assess the spatial variability of LWP in three farming systems (rice-based, millet-based and barley-based) of the Gumera watershed in the highlands of the Blue Nile basin, Ethiopia. We collected data on land use, livestock management and climatic variables using focused group discussions, field observation and secondary data. We estimated the water depleted by evapotranspiration (ET) and beneficial animal products and services and then calculated LWP. Our results suggest that LWP is comparable with crop water productivity at watershed scales. Variability of LWP across farming systems of the Gumera watershed was apparent and this can be explained by farmers’ livelihood strategies and prevailing biophysical conditions. In view of the results there are opportunities to improve LWP: improved feed sourcing, enhancing livestock productivity and multiple livestock use strategies can help make animal production more water productive. Attempts to improve agricultural water productivity, at system scale, must recognize differences among systems and optimize resources use by system components.