Matrilinear hierarchy in the American black bear (Ursus americanus)

The American black bear (Ursus americanus) was long thought to be solitary and its social organization has not been well described. Here, we present new data on black bear social structure. The objectives of the study were to make detailed observations of the behavior of wild black bears to determine their social interactions and structure. We tested whether black bears interacted socially beyond mating and competing for resources, if black bears tracked relationships and interacted regularly even when resources were not limited, and whether the social structure of a population of black bears was based on a matrilinear hierarchy. We collected data by direct observation of bears from 1993 to 2014. Observations of 1210 social interactions at a provisioning site indicated that females compete and form matrilinear hierarchies. Dominant bears established a hierarchy for food, control of space, and control of younger bears. Post interaction scent marking took place, which suggested that dominant females were conditioning subordinates to their scent marks. Affiliative behavior occurred between related and unrelated bears and helped to establish the social structure of the bear community. Based on our data, human–bear conflicts can be reduced by behavioral modifications by humans when they encounter bears. Knowledge of bear behavior and the matrilinear hierarchy provide a basis for non-lethal management of bears that find themselves in a bear–human conflict situation.     

Securing Garbage from Florida Black Bears: Why are the Appropriate Measures Not Implemented at the Municipal Level?

Anthropogenic food conditioning of bears has resulted in recent increases in human–bear conflicts (HBCs) in Florida. Garbage is the leading cause of food conditioning of bears. Despite increased HBCs and related human safety concerns, municipal governments in Florida have generally not taken independent steps to prevent HBCs through altered garbage management. Rather, governments have relied on the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission to manage garbage-related HBCs. We used semi-structured interviews to identify obstacles to securing garbage from bears at the municipal level. Respondents included local government administrations and waste service providers. Political and economic costs of implementing bear-resistant garbage management practices were the major obstacles to securing garbage. Respondents argued that households will not pay for, or support, the implementation of bear-resistant trash cans. Recent adoption by four counties of ordinances requiring residents to secure their garbage from bears suggests that objections to adopting bear-resistant garbage management were overstated.     

Goldilocks Revisited: Public Perceptions of Urban Bears in Northern British Columbia

Management of black bears (Ursus americanus) in urban settings is of growing concern because they often recolonize areas from which they had been extirpated. Urban landscapes offer much needed bear habitat, buffer habitat losses in other areas, and offer protection for bear populations, but only if conflicts between bears and humans are managed. In collaboration with the Northern Bear Awareness Society in Prince George, British Columbia, Canada, a survey of a sample of Prince George residents was conducted to determine their attitudes toward black bears and bear management, including euthanasia (N = 71). These residents tended to feel positively toward black bears, but were split on the issue of euthanasia, with half being firmly opposed and half recognizing the need under certain conditions. There was a significant preference for non-lethal management tools, suggesting an opportunity for governments to explore options for managing human activities that created bear attractants.     

Mitigating Human Conflicts with Livestock Guardian Dogs in Extensive Sheep Grazing Systems

Livestock guardian dogs (LGDs) are an effective tool for limiting livestock depredation by wild and feral predators. Unfortunately, LGDs have bitten hikers, joggers, and mountain bikers. Strategies are needed to mitigate LGD-human conflicts, especially in landscapes inhabited by large, aggressive predators where the threat of livestock depredation is greatest. One recommendation is to keep groups of sheep protected by LGDs at least 400 m from high-use recreational sites, but few data exist to support or refute this strategy. We monitored sheep and LGDs with Global Positioning System collars at seven ranches during a 3-yr period to evaluate how far, and under what circumstances, LGDs roamed from their sheep. One band of sheep (i.e., flock) was studied per ranch, with a typical band composed of 600−800 mature ewes with 900−1 200 lambs. Sheep were herded in extensive grazing systems within their traditional summer or fall grazing areas in foothill and mountain landscapes of southwestern and west-central Montana. Three bands of sheep inhabited landscapes with a greater threat of depredation by gray wolves and grizzly bears, and 4 bands of sheep inhabited landscapes where the threat of depredation was mostly from coyotes. The mean and median LGD-sheep distance across all LGDs and time periods was 164 m and 86 m, respectively. LGDs roamed farther from their sheep during nighttime and crepuscular periods than during daytime; farther when the moon was more fully illuminated; farther during fall than summer; and farther in landscapes without gray wolves and grizzly bears. Female LGDs roamed farther than males. Juvenile LGDs did not roam farther than adult LGDs. Overall, our results from extensive domestic sheep grazing systems suggest that keeping range sheep 400 m away from recreation sites and rural residences will likely prevent > 90% of agonistic LGD encounters with humans.     

Evaluation of fixation devices for prevention of rotation in transverse fractures of the canine femoral shaft: an in vitro study

The effectiveness of various fixation techniques in preventing rotation of fracture segments in transverse fractures of the canine femoral diaphysis was evaluated under laboratory conditions. Single intramedullary Steinmann pins, single Küntscher nails, multiple intramedullary Steinmann pins, and an intramedullary Steinmann pin with a 1/2 Kirschner splint fixation sustained mean torque moments of 0.31, 0.61, 1.26, and 1.63 Newton meters, respectively, before rotation of the fracture segments occurred. Four-pin (full Kirschner) splints were more effective, sustaining a mean torque moment of 5.35 Newton meters before rotation occurred. The canine femoral medullary canal had an average isthmus length of 2.0 to 2.5 cm. The restricted area of implant-cortex contact limited the effectiveness of the intramedullary fixation devices in preventing fracture segment rotation.     

Review of Methods to Reduce Livestock Depradation: I. Guardian Animals

The use of domestic animals to protect livestock was reviewed through visits to actual users, discussions with experts and a thorough literature search. Costs and benefits were analysed in terms of reduced livestock losses. The most common guardian animals are dogs, which have been shown to reduce predation (documented mostly for coyote) by 11?100%. Livestock guardian dogs have also been used effectively against bear, wolf and cheetah. Donkeys are also used as guardian animals, and their effectiveness lies in their natural herding behaviour and aggression, especially against canids. The effectiveness of donkeys varies considerably dependent upon the predator species and the temperament of the individual donkey. Llamas are also used as a guardian animal, with approximately the same characteristics as the donkeys, and will defend themselves against most predators. The use of guardian animals appears to be an effective tool for reducing livestock depredation and should be evaluated in areas with high predation losses against the cost of changing production systems.     

Splenectomy in the management of primary immune‐mediated hemolytic anemia and primary immune‐mediated thrombocytopenia in dogs

BackgroundCurrent reports about the use of splenectomy for the management of immune‐mediated hemolytic anemia (IMHA) or immune‐mediated thrombocytopenia (ITP) or both in dogs are limited.ObjectivesTo retrospectively describe the use of splenectomy as part of the management for IMHA, ITP, and concurrent IMHA and severe thrombocytopenia (CIST) in dogs. It was hypothesized that splenectomy would be beneficial in allowing for reduction of dose of immunosuppressive drugs or discontinuation in 1 or more of these groups.AnimalsSeventeen client‐owned dogs (7 with IMHA, 7 with ITP, and 3 with CIST) were identified across 7 UK‐based referral hospitals from a study period of 2005 to 2016.MethodsData were collected retrospectively via questionnaires and included information about diagnosis, management and treatment response before and after splenectomy. Based on clinical outcome, treatment with splenectomy as part of the management protocol was classified as either successful or unsuccessful.ResultsSix of 7 dogs with ITP were managed successfully with splenectomy as part of their management protocol (3 complete and 3 partial responses), although 1 subsequently developed suspected IMHA. Of the 7 dogs with IMHA, splenectomy was part of a successful management protocol in 4 dogs (2 complete and 2 partial responses). In the CIST group, 1 case (1/3) responded completely to management with splenectomy as part of the management protocol.Conclusions and Clinical ImportanceSplenectomy was considered successful and well tolerated in most cases of isolated ITP. Whether there is a benefit of splenectomy in cases of IMHA and CIST could not be determined in the current study.     

Influence of constant long days on ejaculate parameters of rabbits reared under natural environment conditions of Mediterranean area

Since rabbit bucks are usually housed under constant long daylight in artificial insemination (AI) centers, the main purpose of this study was to investigate whether constant long day influenced ejaculate parameters of rabbits housed in AI centers in the Spanish Mediterranean area. The study was carried out in Murcia, Spain (37° N). Twenty commercial hybrid male rabbits, aged between 14 and 15 weeks, were randomly allotted to two groups and housed under either natural day length (n=10, ND) or a constant 16-h daylight exposure of 16 h (n=10, CLD). Other management conditions, such as air temperature or reproductive handling, were identical for both groups. Two successive ejaculates were collected twice weekly from every male, and the first one was used to monitor ejaculate characteristics. Measurement of semen production, in terms of ejaculate and semen volume, sperm concentration and total sperm per ejaculate, and sperm quality, in terms of motility index, viability, morphology and acrosome integrity, was assessed in 783 ejaculates collected during 15 months (from October to December). No differences (P>0.05) in either semen production or sperm quality were shown among ejaculates collected from rabbits housed under ND and CLD conditions. A limited influence of season was observed (P<0.01); semen volume and motility index were highest and lowest, respectively, during summer. The increase of air temperature and humidity index (THI) had a significant detrimental effect (P<0.01) on both sperm production and quality parameters with a lag of 6 and 3 weeks, respectively. On the basis of these findings, annual variations of semen production and sperm quality in male rabbits seems more related to THI than to daylight length under conditions of AI management in the Mediterranean area of Spain.     

Challenges of thermal nociceptive threshold testing in the donkey

ObjectiveTo evaluate a thermal nociceptive threshold (TNT) testing device in the donkey, and the influence of potential confounding factors on TNTs.AnimalsTwo groups (Group 1 and Group 2) of eight castrated male donkeys aged 4–9 years, weighing 105–170 kg.MethodsTNTs were measured by heating a thermal probe on skin until an end-point behaviour (threshold temperature) or a cut-out temperature (51 °C) was reached. The withers and the dorsal aspect of the distal limb were used as sites for TNT testing. The effects on TNT of different confounding factors: the limb tested; rate of heating; and ambient temperature were evaluated. Data were analyzed using general linear models, and Mann-Whitney tests, p < 0.05 was considered significant.ResultsEnd-point behaviours (skin twitch or donkey looking at test device) when the thermal probe heated the withers were observed in approximately half of tests. TNT was (mean ± SD) 46.8 ± 2.85 °C. Subsequently the limb was evaluated as the test site in Group 1 followed by Group 2 donkeys; end-point behaviour being a foot-lift. In Group 1, 72% of tests ended in an end-point behaviour but the response rate was lower in Group 2 (20%), although TNTs were similar [(47.6 ± 3.3) and (47.3 ± 3.0) °C respectively] for responding animals. Rate of heating, ambient temperature and laterality (right or left) did not affect thresholds, but mean TNT was significantly higher in the forelimb (48.5 ± 2.8 °C) than the hind limb (47.4 ± 2.8 °C) (p = 0.012).ConclusionsWhen a thermal probe cut-out temperature of 51 °C was used in TNT testing in the donkey a high proportion of tests did not produce an identifiable end point behaviour. Higher cut-out temperatures damaged the skin. Under these conditions, thermal nociceptive threshold testing appears not be an appropriate analgesiometry technique in the donkey.Clinical relevanceTNT testing under these conditions is not suitable form of analgesiometry for donkeys.     

Effects of body weight and season on serum lipid concentrations in sloth bears (Melursus ursinus ursinus)

Serum lipid levels were measured in 66 healthy sloth bears (Melursus ursinus ursinus) living under semicaptive conditions with access to natural food resources in the Bannerghatta Biological Park (Karnataka, India), a portion of their native habitat range in the Indian peninsula. Total cholesterol, triglycerides, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels were analyzed. The effects of age, body weight, and season on these lipid parameters were statistically evaluated. There were no correlations between age and any of the serum lipid parameters analyzed. Positive correlations of body weight to both triglyceride and HDL cholesterol levels in these bears were identified. In addition, seasonal trends in physiological serum lipid values, potentially due to variations in the sloth bear diet, were identified. Serum triglyceride levels were higher during postmonsoon season and cholesterol levels were higher during winter compared to other seasons. Serum lipid values obtained from sloth bears in this study were also compared to previously published data on other members of the family Ursidae. This is the first report of serum lipid values as a reference for sloth bears. These values can be used as sensitive predictors of overall health and nutritional status to aid in the captive management and feeding of these bears.     

Recovery and recruitment of the brown mussel,Perna perna (L.), in Transkei: implications for management

The brown mussel Perna perna, has been an important food resource for indigenous inhabitants of the Transkei coast for centuries. The impoverished state of mussel stocks in this region and major differences in low-shore community structure between exploited and protected areas, have been ascribed to the ever-increasing exploitation of this species. In spite of this there has been no effective management of this resource owing to political and logistical problems related to law-enforcement, and misconceptions concerning the resilience of P. perna and the interspecific interactions which govern its recovery. Our present understanding of the ecological impacts of exploitation, and of the potential for recovery, is based on a series of studies and observations made over the last 15 years. These studies have shown that algae usually replace mussels following disturbance and that recovery may take more than eight years. As mussels tend to recruit preferentially into existing mussel beds, exploitation not only affects reproductive output but also reduces the preferred habitat. Recruitment onto both natural and artificial substrata is extremely low, even in marine reserves where standing stock is considerably higher than in exploited areas. Under these conditions stock enhancement in conjunction with rotational cropping may be the best management strategy.     

Field evaluation of some bait additives against Indian crested porcupine (Hystrix indica) (Rodentia: Hystricidae)

This research study evaluated the effect of different additives on the bait consumption by Indian crested porcupine, a serious forest and agricultural pest, under field conditions. Different additives (saccharin, common salt, bone meal, fish meal, peanut butter, egg yolk, egg shell powder, yeast powder, mineral oil and coconut oil) at 2 and 5% each were tested for their relative preference, using groundnut–maize (1:1) as basic bait. All the additives were tested under a no‐choice test pattern. For control tests, no additive was mixed with the basic bait. Saccharin at 5% concentration significantly enhanced the consumption of bait over the basic bait, while 2% saccharin supplemented bait resulted in a non‐significant bait consumption. All other additives did not enhance the consumption of the bait material; rather, these worked as repellents. However, the repellency was lowest with the common salt, followed by egg yolk, egg shell powder, bone meal, peanut butter, mineral oil, fish meal and yeast powder, while coconut remained the most repellent compound. The present study suggested that groundnut–maize (1:1) supplemented with 5% saccharin was the preferred bait combination, and can be used with different rodenticides for the management of Indian crested porcupine.     

Pseudorabies virus eradication by area‐wide vaccination is feasible

Summary

This article reviews the rationale for using marker vaccines and companion diagnostic tests in the eradication of pseudorabies virus (PRV). Recent advances in vaccinology and epidemiology indicate that, despite the inability to induce complete immunity, vaccination is a useful tool in the battle against PRV. This review focuses on the effectiveness of vaccination under field conditions and on herd, management and regional factors that are associated with PRV introduction or transmission.     

Adaptation of a decreaser and an increaser grass species to defoliation in semi‐arid grassveld

Abstract

Grasses have developed through natural selection to deter, escape and tolerate herbivory, and to escape and tolerate fire. In the semi‐arid grassveld of the Eastern Cape, the species Themeda triandra and Sporobolus fimbriatus have been classified as Decreaser and Increaser II plants respectively. Both species have well‐developed escape and tolerance mechanisms, although T. triandra readily tolerates defoliation only during the dormant season, while S. fimbriatus is adapted to tolerating defoliation throughout the year. Furthermore, T. triandra has only moderately developed deterrents to herbivory, in contrast to S. fimbriatus, where deterrents are well developed. It follows that the Decreaser species T. triandra is adapted to relatively frequent fire and no more than modest herbivory, while the Increaser II species, S. fimbriatus, is adapted to heavy herbivore usage, but infrequent fire.     

Effect of grazing frequency and intensity on Lolium perenne L. pastures under subtropical conditions: Herbage quality

Abstract

The cellulase dry matter disappearance (CDMD) and herbage nitrogen (N) of Lolium perenne (perennial ryegrass) were evaluated for pastures grown under subtropical conditions for two years, under five combinations of grazing frequency and intensity, each applied in a rotational grazing system. These quality factors were also evaluated for a simulated continuous grazing (CG) system. Low frequency, low intensity grazing produced lower CDMD and herbage N levels than higher grazing frequencies and intensities. These differences were, however, generally small. Overall, levels of herbage digestibility (estimated by CDMD) and N fell within similar ranges to those observed for perennial ryegrass in temperate environments. Seasonal trends in quality were characterized by high levels during late autumn to early summer (May to October) and low levels during mid‐summer to early autumn (January to April). These data would tend to support high frequency grazing as part of the management programme for perennial ryegrass. It is cautioned, however, that for subtropical conditions in South Africa, adopting frequent grazing may reduce persistence of perennial ryegrass.     

Behavioural problems in dogs

Summary

The treatment of 133 dogs with behavioural problems is reviewed. The problems most frequently presented concerned aggressive behaviour and/or fear (agonistic behaviour). The combination of problems of dominance and problem behaviour stimulating conditioning (PBSC) was a diagnosis made significantly more often than others. The owner's inability to control the dog appeared to be associated primarily with aggression, but also with fear, in the dog.

In aggression as well as in fear, reinstatement of the appropriate ranking order was the usual goal of therapy. In cases of aggression the results of treatment were considered good or fair in 42 percent of the cases, moderate in 11, and bad in 41 percent of the cases. In those involving fear, the results were good or fair in 52 percent of the cases, moderate in 15, and bad in 25 percent. Hence treatment was only moderately successful. This reflects the need for more reliable and valid knowledge about symptoms, diagnostic methods and therapeutic possibilities.     

中国熊养殖及其资源保护

从1988年到现在,在野生动物及养熊场方面,已有1个法律、2个条例和至少5个以上的管理规章颁布实施,特别是1992年禁止对熊产品的进出口、1993年《猎枪和弹药工具的管理规定》以及《熊养殖管理技术暂行规定》的出台对养熊业和其资源保护产生了较大的影响;在法律法规执行方面、养熊场和野生动物及其产品贸易控制方面,政府管理部门采取了多项行动。从调查数据和野生动物肇事问题的增多方面可以看出黑熊野生种群数量在上升：通过关闭不符合国家相关规定如卫生条件、健康、技术和活动场所的养熊场等管理措施,使黑熊养殖场由原来的480家降到了现在的68家;活熊取胆技术也得到了较大改进,原来的导管式、铁背心引流技术已被现在的无管引流技术所取代,过去较小的笼养方式现在也得到了较大改善成为较大活动空间的养殖等。经过十多年的努力,熊养殖及其资源保护的进步趋势已经明显表现出来。尽管如此,野生黑熊在较多地区损害庄稼、伤人甚至导致人死亡的事件经常发生。政府管理部门面临着越来越多的动物肇事补偿问题,特别是,作为123种药品的生产原料并涉及到183家制药企业的熊胆粉供给问题。     

Ultrasound-guided retrobulbar nerve block in donkey cadavers

ObjectiveTo develop and describe an acoustic window to access and inject the retrobulbar region in donkey cadavers.Study designProspective cadaveric experimental study.AnimalsA total of 14 donkey cadaver heads.MethodsUltrasound landmarks for retrobulbar injection were identified by dissection of two cadavers. Ultrasound-guided retrobulbar injection of 3, 6 and 9 mL of contrast–lidocaine mixture (1:1) were evaluated using computed tomography (CT) in 12 cadavers for needle position and spread of injectate into the extraocular muscle cone.ResultsReal-time visualization of needle, extraocular muscle cone and optic nerve enabled successful intraconal instillation of injectate, as documented on CT images.Conclusions and clinical relevanceUltrasound-guided retrobulbar injections in cadaver donkeys provided adequate infiltration of the intraconal space.     

Saddle pressure measuring: validity, reliability and power to discriminate between different saddle-fits

Saddle-fit is recognised as an important factor in the pathogenesis of back problems in horses and is empirically being evaluated by pressure measurements in clinical practice, although not much is known about the validity, reliability and usability of these devices in the equine field. This study was conducted to assess critically a pressure measurement system marketed for evaluating saddle fit. Validity was tested by calculating the correlation coefficient between total measured pressure and the weight of 28 different riders. Reliability and discriminative power with respect to different saddle fitting methods were evaluated in a highly standardised, paired measurement set-up in which saddle-fit was quantified by air-pressure values inside the panels of the saddle. Total pressures under the saddle correlated well with riders' weight. A large increase in over-day sensor variation was found. Within trial intra-class correlation coefficients (ICCs) were excellent, but the between trial ICCs varied from poor to excellent and the variation in total pressure was high. In saddles in which the fit was adjusted to individual asymmetries of the horse, the pressure measurement device was able to detect correctly air-pressure differences between the two panels in the back area of the saddle, but not in the front area. The device yielded valid results, but was only reliable in highly standardised conditions. The results question the indiscriminate use of current saddle pressure measurement devices for the quantitative assessment of saddle-fit under practical conditions and suggest that further technical improvement may be necessary.     

Handheld mechanical nociceptive threshold testing in dairy cows – intra‐individual variation,inter‐observer agreement and variation over time

ObjectiveTo examine the use of handheld methodology to assess mechanical nociceptive threshold (MNT) on cows kept loose-housed.Study designProspective randomized partial cross-over experimental study. A one-factor (test day) design was used to evaluate MNT over time.AnimalsOne hundred and fifteen healthy, loose-housed Danish Holstein cattle.MethodsWe evaluated intra-individual variation, inter-observer agreement and variation over time of MNT using two handheld devices and two stimulation sites. Mechanical, ramped stimulations were performed with an algometer (6.5 mm diameter steel probe, 0–10.0 kgf) or an electronic von Frey device (plastic tip with diameter 0.8 mm, 0–1000 gf). Each cow received 5–6 consecutive stimulations within a 2 × 5 cm skin area on the dorsal or lateral aspect of the left third metatarsus until an avoidance reaction occurred. We investigated the difference in precision [expressed as coefficient of variation (CV)] between the combinations of devices and stimulation sites. The inter-observer agreement and the difference in MNT between test day 1, 3, 7, 10 and 24 were investigated for selected combinations. Data were analysed in mixed models and Bland-Altman as relevant.ResultsThe CVs did not differ [range 0.34–0.52 (p = 0.1)]. Difference between observers (95% limits) was 0.2 kgf (2.8) and 4 gf (369) for the algometer and von Frey device, respectively. Mechanical nociceptive threshold increased from 361 on test day one to 495 gf on test day 24 (p < 0.01).Conclusion and clinical relevanceAll methods showed a high degree of intra-individual variation, and no combination of device and stimulation site showed superior precision. Mean difference between observers was low, and MNT was not consistent over time. Further development of the methods is required before they can be used in research to investigate possible relations between claw lesions and hyperalgesia.