Integration of economic and hydrologic models: Exploring conjunctive irrigation water use strategies in the Volta Basin

We describe the development, calibration and preliminary application of a dynamically coupled economic–hydrologic simulation–optimization model ensemble for evaluating the conjunctive use of surface and groundwater in small reservoir-based irrigation systems characteristic of the Volta Basin, Africa. We focus on a representative small reservoir-irrigation system located in the Antakwidi catchment in Ghana. The model ensemble consists of the physical hydrology model WaSiM-ETH and an economic optimization model written in GAMS. Results include optimal water storage and allocation regimes for irrigated production, given conjunctive surface water and groundwater systems. The goal of our research, conducted within the GLOWA Volta project, is to develop a decision support system for improving the management of land and water resources in the face of potential environmental change in the Volta Basin.     

WaDI (water delivery for irrigation): A simulation tool to address strategic interaction of water demand and supply in irrigation schemes

The WaDI (water delivery for irrigation) model deals with the relations between the collective water supply and the demand within irrigated schemes. It is based on a separate modelling of the water supply and demand, including (i) a simplified representation of the hydraulic structure, characteristics and organizational parameters of the scheme, (ii) an assessment of the water demand of farms based on their total irrigated area, cropping pattern and irrigation practices, (iii) a farm typology, (iv) a confrontation between water demand and supply at each node of the scheme from pumping plants to tertiary canals, and (v) calculation of response factors between supply and demand during the peak demand period. “What-if” scenarios are simulated in order to enhance the stakeholders’ capacity to plan strategic decisions such as water delivery allocation rules or infrastructure investments. WaDI was implemented on two Brazilian schemes. It allowed broadening the stakeholders’ limited representation of collective water supply and demand into a more comprehensive understanding of these relations. The approach however showed some limits, along with the difficulty of assessing the real impact on the stakeholders’ capacity for strategic planning.     

A rule-based method for the development of crop management systems applied to grain sorghum in south-western France

A generic approach is proposed for the development and testing of crop management systems in contrasting situations of water availability. Ecophysiological knowledge, expertise, regional references and simulation models are combined to devise management strategies adapted to production targets and constraints. The next stage consists of converting these crop management strategies into logical and consistent sets of decision rules. Each rule describes the reasoning which is used to apply a technical decision by taking account of observed or simulated environmental conditions or predicted agronomic risks.

This approach was applied to design crop management systems for grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench.) in south-western France. For spring-sown crops, management (sowing date, plant density, varietal choice, N fertilizer rate and timing) was based on water availability, both for economic and environmental reasons. Specific sets of decision rules were written for irrigated and rainfed conditions. The establishment of rules was based on agronomic principles (e.g. for plant density) or on the application of a simulation model (e.g. for sowing date, variety). N fertilization and irrigation were applied using combined N and water dynamic models.

A novel methodology combining crop diagnosis, analytical trials and crop simulation was developed to evaluate the management systems. An irrigated and a rainfed rule-based management system were compared near Toulouse (S.W. France) from 1995 to 2002. The profitability of rainfed low-input management was confirmed for sorghum in spite of high yields under irrigation (up to 10 t ha⁻¹). The adaptation of sorghum management in rainfed conditions was mainly achieved through early maturing cultivars and by reducing N applications by 65%.     

Evaluation of crop water stress index for LEPA irrigated corn

This study was designed to evaluate the crop water stress index (CWSI) for low-energy precision application (LEPA) irrigated corn (Zea mays L.) grown on slowly-permeable Pullman clay loam soil (fine, mixed, Torrertic Paleustoll) during the 1992 growing season at Bushland, Tex. The effects of six different irrigation levels (100%, 80%, 60%, 40%, 20%, and 0% replenishment of soil water depleted from the 1.5-m soil profile depth) on corn yields and the resulting CWSI were investigated. Irrigations were applied in 25 mm increments to maintain the soil water in the 100% treatment within 60–80% of the “plant extractable soil water” using LEPA technology, which wets alternate furrows only. The 1992 growing season was slightly wetter than normal. Thus, irrigation water use was less than normal, but the corn dry matter and grain yield were still significantly increased by irrigation. The yield, water use, and water use efficiency of fully irrigated corn were 1.246 kg/m², 786 mm, and 1.34 kg/m³, respectively. CWSI was calculated from measurements of infrared canopy temperatures, ambient air temperatures, and vapor pressure deficit values for the six irrigation levels. A “non-water-stressed baseline” equation for corn was developed using the diurnal infrared canopy temperature measurements as T _c–T _a = 1.06–2.56 VPD, where T _c was the canopy temperature (°C), Ta was the air temperature (°C) and VPD was the vapor pressure deficit (kPa). Trends in CWSI values were consistent with the soil water contents induced by the deficit irrigations. Both the dry matter and grain yields decreased with increased soil water deficit. Minimal yield reductions were observed at a threshold CWSI value of 0.33 or less for corn. The CWSI was useful for evaluating crop water stress in corn and should be a valuable tool to assist irrigation decision making together with soil water measurements and/or evapotranspiration models. Received: 19 May 1998     

Effects of a shading screen on microclimate and crop water requirements

Despite the steadily increasing area under protected agriculture there is a current lack of knowledge about the effects of the 30% black shading screen on microclimate and crop water requirements. Meteorological and lysimeter measurements inside a screenhouse planted with sweet pepper were compared to external reference data. Irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE) was calculated from yield records Y and water meter readings I _applied. Shading reduced mean global radiation R _G by more than 40%, and the screen transmissivity τ _screen was shown to vary with solar elevation angle β. Wind speed inside the screenhouse u _in was reduced by more than 50%. Crop water requirements ET _c were 38% lower than estimates for an open field crop, suggesting a significant water saving potential when using screenhouses. However, the screen did not significantly modify maximum temperature T _max and daily vapor pressure deficit. The FAO-Penman–Monteith approach based on meteorological measurements in the screenhouse accurately predicted daily crop evapotranspiration, and was in close agreement with lysimeter measurements. IWUE was relatively high (10.7 kg m⁻³ in 2004 and 13.5 kg m⁻³ in 2005), but additional research is required to quantify the effect of shading on yield as well as to determine the water saving potential of other commonly used screens. Contribution no. 603/06 from the Agricultural Research Organization An erratum to this article can be found at     

Modelling the effects of climate variability and water management on crop water productivity and water balance in the North China Plain

In the North China Plain (NCP), while irrigation using groundwater has maintained a high-level crop productivity of the wheat-maize double cropping systems, it has resulted in rapid depletion of groundwater table. For more efficient and sustainable utilization of the limited water resources, improved understanding of how crop productivity and water balance components respond to climate variations and irrigation is essential. This paper investigates such responses using a modelling approach. The farming systems model APSIM (Agricultural Production Systems Simulator) was first calibrated and validated using 3 years of experimental data. The validated model was then applied to simulate crop yield and field water balance of the wheat-maize rotation in the NCP. Simulated dryland crop yield ranged from 0 to 4.5 t ha⁻¹ for wheat and 0 to 5.0 t ha⁻¹ for maize. Increasing irrigation amount led to increased crop yield, but irrigation required to obtain maximum water productivity (WP) was much less than that required to obtain maximum crop yield. To meet crop water demand, a wide range of irrigation water supply would be needed due to the inter-annual climate variations. The range was simulated to be 140-420 mm for wheat, and 0-170 mm for maize. Such levels of irrigation applications could potentially lead to about 1.5 m year⁻¹ decline in groundwater table when other sources of groundwater recharge were not considered. To achieve maximum WP, one, two and three irrigations (i.e., 70, 150 and 200 mm season⁻¹) were recommended for wheat in wet, medium and dry seasons, respectively. For maize, one irrigation and two irrigations (i.e., 60 and 110 mm season⁻¹) were recommended in medium and dry seasons, while no irrigation was needed in wet season.     

Development of crop water stress index of wheat crop for scheduling irrigation using infrared thermometry

This study was conducted to develop the relationship between canopy-air temperature difference and vapour pressure deficit for no stress condition of wheat crop (baseline equations), which was used to quantify crop water stress index (CWSI) to schedule irrigation in winter wheat crop (Triticum aestivum L.). The randomized block design (RBD) was used to design the experimental layout with five levels of irrigation treatments based on the percentage depletion of available soil water (ASW) in the root zone. The maximum allowable depletion (MAD) of the available soil water (ASW) of 10, 40 and 60 per cent, fully wetted (no stress) and no irrigation (fully stressed) were maintained in the crop experiments. The lower (non-stressed) and upper (fully stressed) baselines were determined empirically from the canopy and ambient air temperature data obtained using infrared thermometry and vapour pressure deficit (VPD) under fully watered and maximum water stress crop, respectively. The canopy-air temperature difference and VPD resulted linear relationships and the slope (m) and intercept (c) for lower baseline of pre-heading and post-heading stages of wheat crop were found m = −1.7466, c = −1.2646 and m = −1.1141, c = −2.0827, respectively. The CWSI was determined by using the developed empirical equations for three irrigation schedules of different MAD of ASW. The established CWSI values can be used for monitoring plant water status and planning irrigation scheduling for wheat crop.     

HydroLOGIC: An irrigation management system for Australian cotton

The worldwide need to improve water use efficiency within irrigated agriculture has been recognised in response to environmental concerns and conflicts in resource use. Within the Australian cotton industry, the imperative to reduce water use and optimise irrigation management through the understanding of risk, using information generated by computerised decision aids was identified and subsequently developed into the HydroLOGIC irrigation management software. This paper summarises the attributes of the HydroLOGIC irrigation management software, with particular emphasis on functionality and its application to irrigation decisions within the Australian cotton industry. The software development process is documented to provide direction for future software application initiatives, with particular emphasis on a process of user feedback, evaluation and support requirements providing direction to software development. On-farm experiments throughout the development period allowed the validation of internal software logic, irrigator decision processes, and the OZCOT cotton growth model. The software demonstrated the ability to improve yield and water use efficiency by optimising strategic and tactical irrigation decisions in the Australian furrow irrigation cotton production system. In 7 of the 11 on-farm experiments conducted, the use of HydroLOGIC helped improve overall field water use efficiency by optimising the timing of irrigation events or by indicating further irrigations would not provide yield or maturity benefits. The paper also presents useful insights into the development of software targeted for irrigation utilising in-field measurements of soil water, crop growth and a crop growth simulation model.     

Irrigation strategies to improve the water use efficiency of wheat-maize double cropping systems in North China Plain

Water is the most important limiting factor of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and maize (Zea mays L.) double cropping systems in the North China Plain (NCP). A two-year experiment with four irrigation levels based on crop growth stages was used to calibrate and validate RZWQM2, a hybrid model that combines the Root Zone Water Quality Model (RZWQM) and DSSAT4.0. The calibrated model was then used to investigate various irrigation strategies for high yield and water use efficiency (WUE) using weather data from 1961 to 1999. The model simulated soil moisture, crop yield, above-ground biomass and WUE in responses to irrigation schedules well, with root mean square errors (RMSEs) of 0.029 cm³ cm⁻³, 0.59 Mg ha⁻¹, 2.05 Mg ha⁻¹, and 0.19 kg m⁻³, respectively, for wheat; and 0.027 cm³ cm⁻³, 0.71 Mg ha⁻¹, 1.51 Mg ha⁻¹ and 0.35 kg m⁻³, respectively, for maize. WUE increased with the amount of irrigation applied during the dry growing season of 2001-2002, but was less sensitive to irrigation during the wet season of 2002-2003. Long-term simulation using weather data from 1961 to 1999 showed that initial soil water at planting was adequate (at 82% of crop available water) for wheat establishment due to the high rainfall during the previous maize season. Preseason irrigation for wheat commonly practiced by local farmers should be postponed to the most sensitive growth stage (stem extension) for higher yield and WUE in the area. Preseason irrigation for maize is needed in 40% of the years. With limited irrigation available (100, 150, 200, or 250 mm per year), 80% of the water allocated to the critical wheat growth stages and 20% applied at maize planting achieved the highest WUE and the least water drainage overall for the two crops.     

Crop rotations in Argentina: Analysis of water balance and yield using crop models

Cropping schemes have developed in east-central Argentina for rainfed soybean (Glycine max Merr.) production that invariably employ no-tillage management. Often these schemes include growing soybean in a sequence of crops including wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and maize (Zea mays L.). The full impact of various rotation schemes on soil water balance through a sequence of seasons has not been explored, although the value of these rotations has been studied experimentally. The objective of this work was to investigate through simulations, potential differences in temporal soil water status among rotations over five years. In this study, mechanistic models of soybean (Soy), maize (Maz), and wheat (Wht) were linked over a five-years period at Marcos Juárez, Argentina to simulate soil water status, crop growth, and yield of four no-till rotations (Soy/Soy, Soy/Wht, Soy/Maz, and Soy/Maz/Wht). Published data on sowing dates and initial soil water contents in the first year from a no-till rotation experiment were used as inputs to the model. After the first year, soil water status output from the model was used to initiate the next crop simulation in the sequence. The results of these simulations indicated a positive impact on soil water balance resulting from crop residue on the soil surface under no-till management. Continuous soybean and the two-year soybean/maize rotation did not efficiently use the available water from rainfall. Residue from maize was simulated to be especially effective in suppressing soil evaporation. Thus, the Soy/Maz simulation results indicated that this rotation resulted in enhanced soil water retention, increased deep water percolation, and increased soybean yields compared with continuous soybean crops. The simulated results matched well with experimental observations. The three-crop rotation of Soy/Maz/Wht did not increase simulated soybean yields, but the additional water retained as a result of decreased soil evaporation resulting from the maize residue allowed the addition of a wheat crop in this two-year rotation. Simulated soybean yields were poorly correlated with both the amount of soil water at sowing and the rainfall during the cropping period. These results highlight the importance of temporal distribution of rainfall on final yield. These models proved a valuable tool for assessing the consequences of various rotation schemes now being employed in Argentina on temporal soil water status, and ultimately crop yield.     

Investigating water availability for introducing an additional crop yield in dry season on hill land at Rubirizi, Rwanda

The study explores the potential of introducing an additional crop during dry season in Rwanda, comparing the efficiency of in situ soil moisture conservation techniques to sustain rain-fed agriculture. Comparative study of in situ soil moisture conservation techniques in bench terraces and unterraced field with maize crop had been conducted from June 2007 to October 2007. Bench terrace increased the average soil moisture content in 90 cm soil depth by more than 50% than that of unterraced land. Within the bench terraced field compartment bund and ridges and furrows increased soil moisture by 19.5% and 27.9% higher than plain bed. In terms of efficiency of moisture conservation, ridges and furrows performed well with 85.8% followed by compartment bund with 75.9% in terraced field. Unterraced field conserved moisture very poorly with 13.9% efficiency inferring importance of bench terraces for soil moisture conservation. No maize grain yield was recorded in all the techniques because soil water depleted to 60% and above from the beginning of the cropping period inferring the need of supplementary irrigation. Analysis of rainfall, crop water demand and in situ moisture conservation reveals exciting opportunities for water productivity enhancements by integrating components of water management within the context of rain-fed farming through water harvesting and supplemental or microirrigation for dry spell mitigation. Detailed analysis is needed for feasibility of lift irrigation with different crops under different altitudes to derive suitable policy for hill land irrigation.     

Using ESAP software for predicting the spatial distributions of NDVI and transpiration of cotton

Observations of the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) from aerial imagery can be used to infer the spatial variability of basal crop coefficients (Kcb), which in turn provide a means to estimate variable crop water use within irrigated fields. However, monitoring spatial Kcb at sufficient temporal resolution using only aerial acquisitions would likely not be cost-effective for growers. In this study, we evaluated a model-based sampling approach, ESAP (EC_e Sampling, Assessment, and Prediction), aimed at reducing the number of seasonal aerial images needed for reliable Kcb monitoring. Aerial imagery of NDVI was acquired over an experimental cotton field having two treatments of irrigation scheduling, three plant density levels, and two N levels. During both 2002 and 2003, ESAP software used input imagery of NDVI on three separate dates to select three ground sampling designs having 6, 12, and 20 sampling locations. On three subsequent dates during both the years, NDVI data obtained at the design locations were then used to predict the spatial distribution of NDVI for the entire field. Regression of predicted versus imagery observed NDVI resulted in r² values from 0.48 to 0.75 over the six dates, where higher r² values occurred for predictions made near full cotton cover than those made at partial cover. Prediction results for NDVI were generally similar for all three sample designs. Cumulative transpiration (Tr) for periods from 14 to 28 days was calculated for treatment plots using Kcb values estimated from NDVI. Estimated cumulative Tr using either observed NDVI from imagery or predicted NDVI from ESAP procedures compared favorably with measured cumulative Tr determined from soil water balance measurements for each treatment plot. Except during late season cotton senescence, errors in estimated cumulative Tr were between 3.0% and 7.3% using observed NDVI, whereas they were they were between 3.4% and 8.8% using ESAP-predicted NDVI with the 12 sample design. Thus, employing a few seasonal aerial acquisitions made in conjunction with NDVI measurements at 20 or less ground locations optimally determined using ESAP, could provide a cost-effective method for reliably estimating the spatial distribution of crop water use, thereby improving cotton irrigation scheduling and management.     

In situ use of groundwater by alfalfa

Disposal of saline drainage water is a significant problem for irrigated agriculture. One proposal is to recycle drainage water to irrigate salt tolerant crops until the volume has been reduced sufficiently to enable final disposal by evaporation. Part of this concept requires in situ crop water reuse from shallow groundwater; and data is needed to quantify the potential use of groundwater by alternative crops. A column lysimeter study was initiated to determine the potential crop water use from shallow groundwater by alfalfa as a function of groundwater quality and depth to groundwater. The results demonstrated that up to 50% of the crop water use could be met from shallow groundwater (<1.2 m) with an electrical conductivity less than 4 dS/m, and that the potential crop water use from deeper groundwater (2 m) increased over the years. The columns with high salinity (>4 dS/m) in the shallow groundwater experienced increased salinity in the soil profile with time, which resulted in reduced crop water use from shallow groundwater. Yields decreased with time as the groundwater salinity increased and periodic leaching will be required for in situ use to be a sustainable practice. Statistical analysis of crop yield demonstrated that there was significant use of groundwater with an EC of 6 dS/m for a few years.     

双牌灌区灌溉用水有效利用系数计算分析

本文分析了测算双牌灌区灌溉用水有效利用系数的意义,系统阐述了灌溉用水有效利用系数的测算方法,探讨了影响灌溉用水有效利用系数的具体因素.研究成果可为灌区灌溉用水有效利用系数的测算和灌区的水管理提供理论依据.     

Estimation of water consumption and crop water productivity of winter wheat in North China Plain using remote sensing technology

The North China Plain (NCP) is one of the most water stressed areas in the world. The water consumption of winter wheat accounts for more than 50% of the total water consumption in this region. An accurate estimate of the evapotranspiration (ET) and crop water productivity (CWP) at regional scale is therefore key to the practice of water-saving agriculture in NCP. In this research, the ET and CWP of winter wheat in 83 counties during October 2003 to June 2004 in NCP were estimated using the remote sensing data. The daily ET was calculated using SEBAL model with NOAA remote sensing data in 17 non-cloud days whereas the reference daily crop ET was estimated using meteorological data based on Hargreaves approach. The daily ET and the total ET over the entire growing season of winter wheat were obtained using crop coefficient interpolation approach. The calculated average and maximum water consumption of winter wheat in these 83 counties were 424 and 475 mm, respectively. The calculated daily ET from SEBAL model showed good match with the observed data collected in a Lysimeter. The error of ET estimation over the entire growing stage of winter wheat was approximately 4.3%. The highest CWP across this region was 1.67 kg m⁻³, and the lowest was less than 0.5 kg m⁻³. We observed a close linear relationship between CWP and yield. We also observed that the continuing increase of ET leads to a peaking and subsequent decline of CWP, which suggests that the higher water consumption does not necessarily lead to a higher yield.     

On-farm labour allocation and irrigation water use: case studies among smallholder systems in arid regions

On-farm measurements and observations of water flow, water costs and irrigation labour inputs at the individual parcel level were made in case studies of smallholder irrigation systems in sub-Saharan Africa and south-eastern Arabia. The systems, in which the water source supplied either single or multiple users, were analysed to address the fundamental issues of labour allocation for on-farm water management as this has important consequences for the success of such systems. Results show that the costs associated with accessing water influenced labour input, because when they were low the farmers tended to increase the irrigation rate and reduce the amount of time they spent distributing the water within their parcels. Conversely when water costs were high, lower flow rates and more time spent in water distribution were observed, and this resulted in more uniform irrigation and higher irrigation efficiency. Also, opportunities and demands for farmers to use their labour for activities other than irrigation can lead them to modify operational or physical aspects of the system so that they can reduce the time they spend distributing water within the parcels, particularly when the water is relatively cheap. Awareness and better understanding of how farmers may allocate their labour for water management will lead to more effective planning, design and management of smallholder irrigation systems.     

Drip irrigation of tea (Camellia sinensis L.): 1. Yield and crop water productivity responses to irrigation

The effects of drip irrigation on the yield and crop water productivity responses of four tea (Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze) clones were studied four consecutive years (2003/2004-2006/2007), in a large (9 ha) field experiment comprising of six drip irrigation treatments (labelled: I₁-I₆) and four clones (TRFCA PC81, AHP S15/10, BBK35 and BBT207) planted at a spacing of 1.20 m × 0.60 m at Kibena Tea Limited (KTL), Njombe in the Southern Tanzania in a situation of limited water availability. Each clone × drip irrigation treatment combination was replicated six times in a completely randomized design with 144 net plots each with an area of 72 m². Clone TRFCA PC81 gave the highest yields (range: 5920-6850 kg dried tea ha⁻¹) followed by clones BBT207 (5010-5940 kg dried tea ha⁻¹), AHP S15/10 (4230-5450 kg dried tea ha⁻¹) and BBK35 (3410-4390 kg dried tea ha⁻¹) and drip irrigation treatment I₂ gave the highest yields, ranging from 4954 to 6072 kg dried tea ha⁻¹) compared with those from other treatments (4113-5868 kg dried tea ha⁻¹). Most of these yields exceeded those (4200 kg dried tea ha⁻¹) obtained from overhead sprinkler irrigation system in Mufindi also Southern Tanzania, and Kibena Estate itself. Results showed that drip irrigation of tea not only increased yields but also gave water saving benefits of up to 50% from application of 50% less water to remove the cumulative soil water deficit (treatment I₂), and with labour saving of 85% for irrigation. The yield of dried tea per mm depth of water applied, i.e., “the crop water productivity” for drip irrigation of clones TRFCA PC81, BBT207 and BBK35, in 2003/2004 for instance, were 9.3, 8.5 and 7.1 kg dried tea [ha mm]⁻¹, respectively. The corresponding values in 2004/2005 were 2.7, 4.5 and 2.0 kg dried tea [ha mm]⁻¹ while the yield responses from clone AHP S15/10 were linear decreasing by 1 and 1.6 kg dried tea [ha mm]⁻¹ in 2003/2004 and 2004/2005, respectively. In 2005/2006 the crop water productivity from clones TRFCA PC81, AHP S15/10, BBK35 and BBT207 were 4.5, 0.4, 5.2 and 6.9 kg dried tea [ha mm]⁻¹, respectively with quadratic yield response functions to drip irrigation depth of water application. The results are presented and recommendations and implications made for technology-transfer scaling-up for increased use by large and smallholder tea growers.     

Generating crop sequences in land-use models using maximum entropy and Markov chains

Farm management models often produce average crop shares over a number of years, whereas models from the natural sciences often require inputs of sequences of crops grown on a specific field over several years. In interdisciplinary modelling, this difference can be a relevant obstacle. To bridge this gap, an approach is presented that allows disaggregating results from farm management models to the level required by many natural science models. The approach presented includes two methodological innovations: first, minimum cross entropy is used to ensure a unique solution when modelling a linear programming model at the field level, even when objective and constraint coefficients are identical for different fields. Second, the use of a calibrated Markov chain approach allows the creation of land-use sequences that are closer to the linear programming model’s results than an unconditional stochastic simulation would be. The calibrated Markov chain makes use of a prior matrix of transition probabilities that can be empirically derived. Both simulations and analytical calculations with case study data show that the variances of the Markov chain approach are systematically lower than those yielded by a simple stochastic simulation approach. The approach introduced in this paper can improve the coupling of farm-level economic models with natural science models at the field level.     

基于农民用水户协会的用水总量控制模式研究

以湖南省岳阳市铁山灌区为背景,在对农民用水户协会(WUA)进行评价的基础上,提出基于WUA的用水总量控制新型管理模式。新模式的组织机构主要依托原有WUA,同时根据总量控制的内在要求进行部分完善,如增加水资源管理站、将WUA的用水组改为水费组、计量组和工程组并相应完善其用水和水费收缴程序;制度方面建议新搭建一系列的保障制度如水权分配、水价体系、农业水权转让补偿和水量计量管理等。编制了铁山水库不同水文年向城市和灌溉的供水总量控制方案,最后初步提出了新模式的实施计划。