Thermographic assessment of scab disease on apple leaves

Phytopathogenic fungi may affect both the cuticular and the stomatal conductance of plant tissue resulting in significant modifications of leaf temperature. Venturia inaequalis colonizes apple leaves below the cuticle (subcuticularly) causing scab disease. The suitability of digital infrared thermography for sensing and quantifying apple scab was assessed by investigating the effects of V. inaequalis on the water balance of apple leaves in relation to the disease stage and the severity of scab. Transpiration was measured by infrared thermo-imaging to evaluate spatial heterogeneity of the leaves in response to localized infections. Fungal development was assessed microscopically. Subcuticular growth of the pathogen caused localized decreases in leaf temperature before symptoms appeared that significantly increased the maximum temperature difference (MTD) of leaves. The MTD increased with scab development and was strongly correlated to the size of infection sites (r2_linear = 0.85) and overall disease severity (% diseased leaf area, r2_square = 0.71). In later stages of the disease, the MTD decreased because of leaf senescence. Thermographic measurements revealed differences in disease severity resulting from disease stage, resistance of host tissue and differences in the aggressiveness of V. inaequalis isolates. Subcuticular growth of the pathogen was beyond the area of conidia production, therefore, the area of leaf with increased transpiration was larger than the scab lesions; the proportion decreased from >70% in the early stages to <20% for mature lesions. Leaf transpiration was increased by all stages of scab development, therefore, MTD may be used not only for the differentiation between diseased and non-diseased leaves, but also for disease quantification, e.g. in screening systems and monitoring in precision agriculture.     

Quantum yield of non-regulated energy dissipation in PSII (Y(NO)) for early detection of leaf rust (Puccinia triticina) infection in susceptible and resistant wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivars

The development and optimization of protocols for the precise and pre-symptomatic detection of diseases, and non-invasive evaluation of genotype-specific pathogen resistance enabling selection of the more promising genotypes in breeding programmes are important and often overlooked topics in precision agriculture. The increasing pressure to minimize both production costs and the environmental impact of pesticides forces the search for rapid and objective methods of screening pathogen resistance. Using the non-destructive pulse amplitude modulated (PAM) chlorophyll fluorescence imaging technique, we hypothesized that not only disease detection but also discrimination between differences in the level of resistance of wheat cultivars to the leaf rust (Puccinia triticina Erics.) pathogen can be achieved. Experiments were conducted using the cultivars Dekan and Retro as representatives of a susceptible and a highly resistant genotype, respectively. Fluorescence measurements were carried out daily on the control and on plants inoculated with P. triticina until the first small red-brown pustules appeared in the centre of chlorotic spots. In response to pathogen inoculation, the fluorescence readings showed an early characteristic increase in Y(NO) in both resistant and susceptible cultivars. The susceptible cultivar, however, showed a more pronounced difference between Y(NO) values measured on the control and inoculated leaves as well as a distinct evolution over time. Accordingly, our results indicate that Y(NO) might be suitable for discriminating between wheat genotypes as early as 2 days after inoculation. Thus, the proposed protocol might be adopted as an additional tool for the early screening of new genotypes, especially in breeding programs that aim for high resistance to disease and low crop variability for precision agriculture. However, its implementation in experimental field plots requires improvement of the measurement system and establishment of appropriate algorithms for disease pattern recognition and data analysis.     

Detection of citrus canker in citrus plants using laser induced fluorescence spectroscopy

Citrus canker is a serious disease caused by Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri bacteria, which infects citrus plants (Citrus spp.) leading to a large economic loss in citrus production worldwide. In Brazil citrus canker control is done by an official eradication campaign, therefore early detection of such disease is important to prevent greater economic losses. However, detection is difficult and so far it has been done by visual inspection of each tree. Suspicious leaves from citrus plants in the field are sent to the laboratory to confirm the infection by laboratory analysis, which is a time consuming. Our goal was to develop a new optical technique to detect and diagnose citrus canker in citrus plants with a portable field spectrometer unit. In this paper, we review two experiments on laser induced fluorescence spectroscopy (LIF) applied to detect citrus canker. We also present new data to show that the length of time a leaf has been detached is an important variable in our studies. Our results show that LIF has the potential to be applied to citrus plants.     

1.2%瑞拉菌素水乳剂对油菜菌核病的防治效果

用100倍、300倍和500倍的1.2%瑞拉菌素水乳剂稀释液,通过室内离体叶片接菌、田间植株接菌和在自然发病情况下对油菜进行喷施药试验。结果表明,不同倍数稀释液1.2%瑞拉菌素水乳剂处理对油菜菌核病均有一定的防(抑)治效果。室内离体叶片接菌鉴定其抑制率分别为79.53%、68.27%、26.47%,田间接种鉴定的防治效果分别为30.1%、29.9%、19.12%,在不接种自然发病情况下,防治效果分别达到为70.89%、66.24%、34.20%。由此可见1.2%瑞拉菌素水乳剂能有效控制油菜菌核病害蔓延发展,保护油菜的运输器官,保护油菜叶片免收危害,确保油菜正常光合作用,增加粒质量和角粒数,增产保产效果明显。     

Spider Mite Detection and Canopy Component Mapping in Cotton Using Hyperspectral Imagery and Spectral Mixture Analysis

Spectral mixture analysis and hyperspectral remote sensing are analytical and hardware tools new to precision agriculture. They can allow detection and identification of various crop stresses and other plant and canopy characteristics through analysis of their spectral signatures. One stressor in cotton, the strawberry spider mite (Tetranychus turkestani U.N.), feeds on plants causing leaf puckering and reddish discoloration in early stages of infestation and leaf drop later. To determine the feasibility of detecting the damage caused by this pest at the field level, AVIRIS imagery was collected from USDA-ARS cotton research fields at Shafter, CA on 4 dates in 1999. Additionally, cotton plants and soil were imaged in situ in 10 nm increments from 450 to 1050 nm with a liquid-crystal tunable-filter camera system. Mite-damaged areas on leaves, healthy leaves, tilled shaded soil, and tilled sunlit soil were chosen as reference endmembers and used in a constrained linear spectral mixture analysis to unmix the AVIRIS data producing fractional abundance maps. The procedure successfully distinguished between adjacent mite-free and mite-infested cotton fields although shading due to sun angle differences between dates was a complicating factor. The resulting healthy plant, soil, mite-damaged, and shade fraction maps showed the distribution and relative abundance of these endmembers in the fields. These hardware and software technologies can identify the location, spatial extent, and severity of crop stresses for use in precision agriculture.     

柑橘黄龙病菌对沙田柚田间性状和果实品质的影响

【目的】明确柑橘黄龙病菌对沙田柚Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr. cv. Shatian Yu田间性状和果实品质的影响。【方法】结合田间调查和室内试验系统研究沙田柚感染黄龙病菌后叶片症状、果实内外品质和风味感官品质的变化,及病菌浓度和树龄对病程发展的影响。【结果】沙田柚嫁接病芽后,黄龙病菌浓度保持在较低水平(Ct28)时,植株叶片的黄龙病症状表现不明显,老叶轻微斑驳黄化,新叶轻微均匀黄化,抽梢正常。与健康植株(Ct35)相比,低黄龙病菌浓度(28Ct32)的植株,叶片症状、果实产量和各品质指标均无显著变化;随着发病程度的加深,高黄龙病菌浓度(Ct26)的柚树叶片出现典型斑驳黄化症状,单株柚果总产量和总结果数显著降低,果实变小变轻,着色不均匀,可食率、出汁率、可溶性固形物含量、甜味度、果肉饱满度和综合风味显著下降,酸味度和异味度反而显著提高,失去食用价值。【结论】沙田柚黄龙病病程进展较慢,但随着发病程度加深,其经济价值受到严重影响。本研究可为评价柑橘黄龙病对沙田柚品质的影响提供科学依据,为解析柚类植物的黄龙病耐性机理提供理论支撑。     

猕猴桃细菌性叶枯病病原菌和发生规律研究

对猕猴桃细菌性叶枯病的症状进行了描述,并研究了病原菌的形态特征、生理生化特性、侵染循环、传播途径和发病因素。结果表明,该细菌在许多理化特性上与猕猴桃细菌性溃疡病的病原细菌有相同之处,但在形态特征上与溃疡病病原细菌有着明显的差异,该病的病原细菌应该为丁香假单胞杆菌丁香致病变种,该病的发生与品种、气候和管理水平有一定的关系。     

多重PCR快速检测槟榔黄化植原体和槟榔隐症病毒1体系的建立

由槟榔黄化植原体(arecapalmyellowleafphytoplasma,AYLP)引起的黄化病和槟榔隐症病毒1(Areca palm velarivirus 1, APV1)引起的黄叶病毒病是危害槟榔树最严重的两种病害,对海南槟榔产业造成了巨大的经济损失,建立快速的检测技术对于两种病害的预警防控具有重要意义。利用多重PCR(Multiplex PCR)技术同时检测AYLP和APV1,即AYLP巢式PCR第一轮结束后,再使用一次多重PCR对两种病原同时进行扩增,最后进行电泳观察结果。结果显示,通过对多重PCR浓度体系和退火温度进行优化,在一个体系中成功扩增出AYLP和APV1,得到525和311 bp两条特异性大小条带。多重PCR检测与单一PCR检测结果完全一致,并且与单一PCR检测方法比较,多重PCR方法精简了操作步骤,提高了检测效率,显著降低了检测成本,为槟榔黄化病和黄叶病毒病的常规诊断提供了新方法。因此,该技术在AYLP和APV1常规检测中具有重要的应用价值。     

The potential of automatic methods of classification to identify leaf diseases from multispectral images

Three methods of automatic classification of leaf diseases are described based on high-resolution multispectral stereo images. Leaf diseases are economically important as they can cause a loss of yield. Early and reliable detection of leaf diseases has important practical relevance, especially in the context of precision agriculture for localized treatment with fungicides. We took stereo images of single sugar beet leaves with two cameras (RGB and multispectral) in a laboratory under well controlled illumination conditions. The leaves were either healthy or infected with the leaf spot pathogen Cercospora beticola or the rust fungus Uromyces betae. To fuse information from the two sensors, we generated 3-D models of the leaves. We discuss the potential of two pixelwise methods of classification: k-nearest neighbour and an adaptive Bayes classification with minimum risk assuming a Gaussian mixture model. The medians of pixelwise classification rates achieved in our experiments are 91% for Cercospora beticola and 86% for Uromyces betae. In addition, we investigated the potential of contextual classification with the so called conditional random field method, which seemed to eliminate the typical errors of pixelwise classification.     

Evaluating Remote Sensing for Determining and Classifying Soybean Anomalies

Two soybean fields were monitored in 2001 and 2002 to determine the utility of multispectral imagery for locating and classifying crop anomalies. Crop anomalies may be due to planter problems, soil problems, weed infestations and stressed soybean plants. Three image collection dates per location for each year were used in a supervised classification analysis. In 2002, aerial images were evaluated for potential use as a directed scouting tool. Remotely sensed data as a scouting tool detected 50–100% of anomalies detected by ground truthing. The number of anomalies detected by aerial imagery decreased through the growing season, while the number of anomalies found from directed scouting remained relatively constant. Thus, agreement was higher later in the growing season, since remote sensing was detecting more anomalies than the ground truthing efforts did. Excluding bare soil and healthy soybean situations, anomalies due to stress on soybean plants in the form of iron chlorosis and stunted plants yielded highest classification accuracies, ranging from 83% to 90% both years. This is attributed to differences in coloration of soybean plants with iron chlorosis and lack of full canopy coverage of stunted soybean. Herbicide damage due to overlap of spray boom led to classification accuracies from 50% to 67%. The overlap of the spray boom was not widespread in the field; thus, fewer areas of interests could be constructed for testing purposes, which may explain the decrease in classification accuracies.     

叶面喷施不同形态硒对草莓吸收和转运硒的影响

采用温室大棚试验,研究了叶面喷施硒酸钠和亚硒酸钠对提高草莓硒含量的影响以及硒在草莓植株中的转运和分布,旨在为富硒水果的开发和生产提供理论依据。本试验在草莓初花期进行叶面喷施亚硒酸钠和硒酸钠,当喷硒量为20、40、60 g Se·hm^-2时,亚硒酸钠处理40 d后草莓果实样品中硒含量分别为0.03、0.10、0.15 mg·kg^-1 FW,分别为对照的3、20倍和30倍;硒酸钠处理40 d后草莓果实硒含量分别为0.05、0.12、0.17 mg·kg^-1 FW,是对照处理的5、24倍和34倍。但是叶面喷施的硒持续供给果实的能力有限,随着草莓果实的连续生长,后期采收的草莓中硒含量显著下降。叶面喷硒后,叶片吸收的亚硒酸钠约有30%转移到了根部,而硒酸钠则更多地累积于叶片中,转移到根部的量不到15%。草莓初花期叶面喷施硒可以显著提高前期草莓果实中硒的含量,随着采收期的延长,草莓中硒的含量显著下降,喷施亚硒酸钠的处理硒向根部转移的能力高于硒酸钠的处理。     

Crop water stress index derived from multi-year ground and aerial thermal images as an indicator of potato water status

Potato yield and quality are highly dependent on an adequate supply of water. In this study, 3 years of information from thermal and RGB images were collected to evaluate water status in potato fields. Irrigation experiments were conducted in commercial potato fields (Desiree; drippers). Two water-deficit scenarios were tested: a short-term water deficit (by suppressing irrigation for a number of days before image acquisition), and a long-term cumulative water deficit. Ground and aerial images were acquired in various phenological stages along the potato growing season. Effects of irrigation treatments were recorded by thermal indices and biophysical measurements of stomatal conductance (SC), leaf water potential, leaf osmotic potential and gravimetric water potential in soil. Canopy temperature was delineated from the thermal images with and without fused information from the RGB image. Crop water stress index (CWSI) was calculated, using three forms of minimum baseline temperature: empirical, theoretical and statistical. An empirical evaluation of maximum baseline temperature of Tair + 7 °C was used in all CWSI forms examined. Statistical tests and comparison of CWSI with biophysical measurements were performed to evaluate the responses to irrigation treatments. The results indicated a high correlation of CWSI with SC from tuber initiation to maturity based on ground and aerial data (0.64 ≤ R² ≤ 0.99). Similar trends of increasing CWSI from well to deficit-irrigated treatments were found in all three growing seasons. The results also showed that CWSI may be calculated based merely on thermal imagery data.     

不同接种方式下番茄溃疡病病原菌的致病效果比较

番茄溃疡病（Bacterial canker of tomato）是目前国内外番茄生产上最严重的细菌病害之一。为建立准确有效的人工接种鉴定体系,本研究采用5种不同的人工接种方式（剪顶法、喷雾法、复叶柄注射法、茎顶端注射法和茎基部注射法）对番茄植株进行接种,比较和分析了接种后各群体植株起始发病时间、平均发病率、病情指数和平均死株率等指标。结果表明：剪顶法和茎部注射法接种病原菌致病效果最好,发病率达到100.0%,病情指数>75.0,但是剪顶法接种后植株死亡率很高,接种40d时死亡率高达96.7%,不利于后续的遗传分析及留种;进一步分析发现茎基部注射接种时病原菌在植株体内传播速度更快;用5份抗感性不同的番茄材料及2个遗传分离群体共计742株番茄进行茎基部注射接种,结果表明该法接种后可以准确区分番茄材料的抗感性。综上所述,本研究结果表明茎基部注射法接种适用于番茄材料抗溃疡病评价及遗传分析,为抗溃疡病番茄材料的筛选及抗性品种的培育提供了有力支撑。     

Early detection and classification of plant diseases with Support Vector Machines based on hyperspectral reflectance

Automatic methods for an early detection of plant diseases are vital for precision crop protection. The main contribution of this paper is a procedure for the early detection and differentiation of sugar beet diseases based on Support Vector Machines and spectral vegetation indices. The aim was (I) to discriminate diseased from non-diseased sugar beet leaves, (II) to differentiate between the diseases Cercospora leaf spot, leaf rust and powdery mildew, and (III) to identify diseases even before specific symptoms became visible. Hyperspectral data were recorded from healthy leaves and leaves inoculated with the pathogens Cercospora beticola, Uromyces betae or Erysiphe betae causing Cercospora leaf spot, sugar beet rust and powdery mildew, respectively for a period of 21 days after inoculation. Nine spectral vegetation indices, related to physiological parameters were used as features for an automatic classification. Early differentiation between healthy and inoculated plants as well as among specific diseases can be achieved by a Support Vector Machine with a radial basis function as kernel.The discrimination between healthy sugar beet leaves and diseased leaves resulted in classification accuracies up to 97%. The multiple classification between healthy leaves and leaves with symptoms of the three diseases still achieved an accuracy higher than 86%. Furthermore the potential of presymptomatic detection of the plant diseases was demonstrated. Depending on the type and stage of disease the classification accuracy was between 65% and 90%.     

女贞褐斑病病原菌的生物学特性及寄主范围测定

【目的】明确环境因子对女贞褐斑病病原菌小新壳梭孢（Neofusicoccum parvum）生长的影响及该病菌对不同种类植物的致病性,为女贞褐斑病的科学防控提供理论基础。【方法】以前期研究鉴定的女贞褐斑病病原菌小新壳梭孢NPGY-1为材料,采用菌落生长速率法研究不同温度、pH及碳氮源条件对菌株NPGY-1生长的影响;采用离体叶片接种法测定菌株NPGY-1对不同种类植物的致病性,测定其寄主范围。【结果】菌株NPGY-1的最适生长温度和pH分别为28℃和6.0,在PDA培养基上培养3 d的菌落扩展直径分别为50.7和62.9 mm。最适碳源为蔗糖、葡萄糖和甘露醇,最适氮源为甘氨酸和硫酸铵。对49科73种植物的致病性测定结果显示,有44科66种供试植物在试验观察期内出现不同程度的发病症状,5科（锦葵科、唇形科、海桐花科、堇菜科和葫芦科）7种植物未发病。【结论】引起女贞褐斑病的病原菌小新壳梭孢对环境的适应性较强,且对多种植物有潜在致病性。在园林绿化植物配置时,应选取抗性程度不同的植物进行搭配,有利于减轻该病的发生流行。     

Induction and mechanism of cucumber resistance to anthracnose induced by Pieris rapae extract

Pieris rapae extract was sprayed on the surface of cucumber leaf to determine the induction of resistance to anthracnose. The enzyme activities of peroxidase (POD) and polyphenoloxidase (PPO) were detected on cucumber leaves after P. rapae extract induction and pathogen challenge. The results showed that the disease index of cucumber anthracnose was significantly decreased after the cucumber was induced with the P. rapae extract at a concentration of 5.0 mg·mL⁻¹. The POD and PPO activities in foliar-applied P. rapae extract without pathogen inoculation (PETO) or with pathogen inoculation (PETI) were relatively higher than those with no-P. rapae extract treatment and without pathogen inoculation (CONO) or with pathogen inoculation (CONI), respectively. The results suggested that the increased levels of POD and PPO activities in PETO and PETI play an important role in the induction of resistance to cucumber anthracnose.     

Induction of resistance of near-isogenic lines of common wheat cultivar thatcher to leaf rust <Emphasis Type="Italic">Puccinia triticina</Emphasis> Eriks. under the effect of benzimidazole

Induction of resistance under the effect of benzimidazole is shown by using the method of infecting intact plants and leaf segments of 27 near-isogenic lines of cultivar Thatcher carrying various leaf rust resistance Lr genes. It is shown that induction depends on the particular resistance gene, pathogen clone, and benzimidazole concentration.     

Spectral signatures of sugar beet leaves for the detection and differentiation of diseases

This study examines the potential of hyperspectral sensor systems for the non-destructive detection and differentiation of plant diseases. In particular, a comparison of three fungal leaf diseases of sugar beet was conducted in order to facilitate a simplified and reproducible data analysis method for hyperspectral vegetation data. Reflectance spectra (400–1050 nm) of leaves infected with the fungal pathogens Cercospora beticola, Erysiphe betae, and Uromyces betae causing Cercospora leaf spot, powdery mildew and rust, respectively, were recorded repeatedly during pathogenesis with a spectro-radiometer and analyzed for disease-specific spectral signatures. Calculating the spectral difference and reflectance sensitivity for each wavelength emphasized regions of high interest in the visible and near infrared region of the spectral signatures. The best correlating spectral bands differed depending on the diseases. Spectral vegetation indices related to physiological parameters were calculated and correlated to the severity of diseases. The spectral vegetation indices Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Anthocyanin Reflectance Index (ARI) and modified Chlorophyll Absorption Integral (mCAI) differed in their ability to assess the different diseases at an early stage of disease development, or even before first symptoms became visible. Results suggested that a distinctive differentiation of the three sugar beet diseases using spectral vegetation indices is possible using two or more indices in combination.     

番茄叶霉病初侵染再侵染及发病条件的研究

本试验研究证明了番茄叶霉病菌以菌丝体在病残体内或以菌丝潜伏在种皮内越冬，是第２年初侵染主要来源。早熟品种发病高峰出现在５～６月，病叶率高达１００％。中晚熟品种高峰出现在６～７月，８月中下旬还有一小高峰，病叶率最高达６８％。湿度是此病害流行的关键因素，保护地设施内昼夜平均湿度大于８０％，有利于该病害的发生。温度对该病源菌潜育期影响较大，潜育期最适温度２０～２５℃。