Arsenic speciation in food and estimation of the dietary intake of inorganic arsenic in a rural village of West Bengal, India

Arsenic (As) species were quantified by HPLC-HG-AFS in water and vegetables from a rural area of West Bengal (India). Inorganic species predominated in vegetables (including rice) and drinking water; in fact, inorganic arsenic (i-As) represented more than 80% of the total arsenic (t-As) content. To evaluate i-As intake in an arsenic affected rural village, a food survey was carried out on 129 people (69 men and 60 women). The data from the survey showed that the basic diet, of this rural population, was mainly rice and vegetables, representing more than 50% of their total daily food intake. During the periods when nonvegetarian foods (fish and meat) were scarce, the importance of rice increased, and rice alone represented more than 70% of the total daily food intake. The food analysis and the food questionnaires administrated led us to establish a daily intake of i-As of about 170 microg i-As day (-1), which was above the tolerable daily intake of 150 microg i-As day (-1), generally admitted. Our results clearly demonstrated that food is a very important source of i-As and that this source should never be forgotten in populations depending heavily on vegetables (mainly rice) for their diet.     

Vegetables collected in the cultivated Andean area of northern Chile: total and inorganic arsenic contents in raw vegetables.

High levels of arsenic are found in the soil and water of the Second Region in Chile as a result of natural causes. Total and inorganic arsenic contents were analyzed in the edible part of 16 agricultural products (roots, stems, leaves, inflorescences, and fruits) grown in this area. The total arsenic contents varied in the range 0.008-0.604 microg g(-1) of wet weight (ww), below the maximum level allowed by Chilean legislation (1 microg(-1) of ww). Inorganic arsenic contents (range = 0.008-0.613 microg(-1) of ww) represented between 28 and 114% of total arsenic. The concentrations of total and inorganic arsenic found in edible roots and leaves were higher than those found in fruit. The highest concentrations were found in a sample of spinach. High quantities of this vegetable would have to be consumed (250 g/day) to reach the Provisional Tolerable Weekly Intake for inorganic arsenic. The vegetable group may make a considerable contribution to the total intake of inorganic arsenic.     

Cancer risk to Japanese population from the consumption of inorganic arsenic in cooked hijiki

The cancer risk posed by inorganic arsenic (iAs) ingestion via the consumption of hijiki seaweed, a common Japanese food item known to accumulate pentavalent arsenic, was estimated. Fourteen households were asked to supply three portions of cooked hijiki (boiled and fried with vegetables and fried bean curd, etc.), as usually cooked and served per person in each household. The monthly consumption frequency of cooked hijiki was assessed by questionnaire: it was typically two to three times a month in most households. The mean daily consumption of cooked hijiki was estimated to be 6.5 g/day (range = 1.1-14 g/day, median = 5.5 g/day) by multiplying one serving quantity (grams) by the monthly frequency of consumption. The concentration of iAs [As(III) + As(V)] in the cooked hijiki was determined after homogenization, freeze-drying, 0.07 mol/L HCl extraction, and high-performance liquid chromatography-inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (HPLC-ICPMS). The concentration of iAs ranged from 0.4 to 2.8 mg/kg (wet weight basis) in the cooked hijiki, and iAs intake from cooked hijiki was calculated to be 0.0005-0.023 mg/day. On the basis of these data and the oral slope factor [1.5E0 (mg/kg/day) (-1)] reported by the U.S. EPA for iAs, the mean skin cancer risk through cooked hijiki consumption was calculated to be 2.4 x 10(-4) (range = 1.6 x 10(-6) -7.0 x 10(-4)), which exceeded the acceptable level of 10(-5). Taking the risk of other cancers (bladder, lung, etc.) into consideration, the contribution to cancer occurrence through the consumption of hijiki seaweed may not be negligible.     

Nitrate,arsenic, cadmium,and lead concentrations in leafy vegetables: expected average values for productive regions of Chile

High arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), and nitrate (NO₃^?) concentrations in soil pose a risk for the human population and compromise food safety. The goal of this study was to obtain preliminary approximations for the expected mean values of As, Cd, Pb, and N-NO₃ in three leafy vegetables (lettuce, spinach, and chard) grown in the central farming regions of Chile. Representative samples (n = 148) of these crops were collected from the Coquimbo, Valparaíso, and Metropolitana Regions. Water extraction and an ion-selective electrode were used to determine NO₃^? contents, while total As, Cd, and Pb contents were determined by atomic absorption spectroscopy. The recorded values were 23.8%, 59.2%, and 97.9% below detection limits for As, Cd, and Pb, respectively. Furthermore, As and Cd intake by leafy vegetables reached 0.26 and 2.30% of the daily intake levels estimated by Chilean authorities. The daily NO₃^? intake by leafy vegetables was 0.44 mg per kg of bodyweight per day (kgbw^?1day^?1), or 12% of the WHO-recommended intake. No analyses were performed for Pb due to highly left-censored data. While the recorded NO₃^?, As, and Cd concentrations in lettuce, spinach, and chard do not apparently pose a health risk, further detailed studies are suggested.     

Lead dietary intake in a Spanish population (Canary Islands)

For most people diet is the main route of exposure to trace metals, so information about dietary intake is also important to assess risks to human health for these elements. The purpose of this study was to determine the levels of Pb in the foods and drinks of highest consumption in the authors' our community to estimate daily intakes of Pb for each of the seven Canary Islands. Four hundred and twenty samples were analyzed using GFAAS. The total Pb intake of the Canarian population is 72.8 microg/day, 29.12% (for a person of 70 kg body weight) of the provisional tolerable weekly intake limit of 25 microg/kg fixed by the FAO/WHO. The island that presents the highest lead intake is La Gomera, followed by Lanzarote, Tenerife, and Gran Canaria islands. These four islands present a lead dietary intake over the mean Pb intake for the whole archipelago. The islands with lower Pb intakes are La Palma and Fuerteventura, with intakes under 70 microg/day. These results have also been compared with the values found for other national and international communities.     

Arsenic in cooked seafood products: study on the effect of cooking on total and inorganic arsenic contents

Total and inorganic arsenic contents were analyzed in cooked seafood products consumed in Spain during the period July 1997-June 1998: hake, meagrim, small hake, anchovy, Atlantic horse mackerel, sardine, bivalves, crustaceans, squid, and salted cod. Various cooking treatments were used (grilling, roasting, baking, stewing, boiling, steaming, and microwaving). The results obtained were compared statistically with those found previously in the same products raw, and they showed that after cooking there was a significant increase in the concentration of total arsenic for salted cod and bivalves, and in the concentration of inorganic arsenic for bivalves and squid. The mean content of inorganic arsenic was significantly higher in bivalves than in any other type of seafood. For the Spanish population, the mean intake of total arsenic estimated on the basis of the results obtained in this study is 245 microg/day. The intake of inorganic arsenic (2.3 microg/day) represents 1.7% of the World Health Organization provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI), leaving an ample safety margin for this population, which has a very high consumption of seafood.     

The impact of a school-based nutrition education intervention on dietary intake and cognitive and attitudinal variables relating to fruits and vegetables

OBJECTIVE: To assess the impact of a school-based nutrition education intervention aimed at increasing the consumption of fruits and vegetables. DESIGN: The intervention programme increased the provision of fruits and vegetables in schools and provided a range of point-of-purchase marketing materials, newsletters for children and parents, and teacher information. Curriculum materials at age 6-7 and 10-11 years were also developed and utilised. Evaluation was undertaken with groups of younger (aged 6-7 years) and older (aged 10-11 years) children. Methods included 3-day dietary records with interview and cognitive and attitudinal measures at baseline, with follow-up at 9 months, in intervention and control schools. SETTING: The work was undertaken in primary schools in Dundee, Scotland. SUBJECTS: Subjects comprised 511 children in two intervention schools with a further 464 children from two schools acting as controls. RESULTS: Children (n=64) in the intervention schools had an average increase in fruit intake (133+/-1.9 to 183+/-17.0 g day(-1)) that was significantly (P<0.05) greater than the increase (100+/-11.7 to 107+/-14.2 g day(-1)) estimated in children (n=65) in control schools. No other changes in food or nutrient intake were detected. Increases in scores for variables relating to knowledge about fruits and vegetables and subjective norms were also greater in the intervention than in the control group, although taste preferences for fruits and vegetables were unchanged. CONCLUSIONS: It is concluded that a whole school approach to increasing intakes of fruits and vegetables has a modest but significant effect on cognitive and attitudinal variables and on fruit intake.     

Characterization of aroma-active compounds in raw and cooked pine-mushrooms (Tricholoma matsutake Sing.)

The characteristic aroma-active compounds in raw and cooked pine-mushrooms (Tricholoma matsutake Sing.) were investigated by gas chromatography-olfactometry using aroma extract dilution analysis. 1-Octen-3-one (mushroom-like) was the major aroma-active compound in raw pine-mushrooms; this compound had the highest flavor dilution factor, followed by ethyl 2-methylbutyrate (floral and sweet), linalool (citrus-like), methional (boiled potato-like), 3-octanol (mushroom-like and buttery), 1-octen-3-ol (mushroom-like), (E)-2-octen-1-ol (mushroom-like), and 3-octanone (mushroom-like and buttery). By contrast, methional, 2-acetylthiazole (roasted), an unknown compound (chocolate-like), 3-hydroxy-2-butanone (buttery), and phenylacetaldehyde (floral and sweet), which could be formed by diverse thermal reactions during the cooking process, together with C8 compounds, were identified as the major aroma-active compounds in cooked pine-mushrooms.     

Identification of aminoethylcysteine ketimine decarboxylated dimer, a natural antioxidant, in dietary vegetables

Aminoethylcysteine ketimine decarboxylated dimer (simply named dimer) is a natural sulfur-containing tricyclic compound detected, until now, in human urine, bovine cerebellum, and human plasma. Recently, the antioxidant properties of this compound have been demonstrated. In this investigation, the presence of aminoethylcysteine ketimine decarboxylated dimer was identified in garlic, spinach, tomato, asparagus, aubergine, onion, pepper, and courgette. Identification of this compound in dietary vegetables was performed using gas chromatography, high-performance liquid chromatography, and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Results from GC analysis range in the order of 10(-4) micromol of dimer/g for all the tested vegetables. These results and the lack of a demonstrated biosynthetic pathway in humans might account for a dietary supply of this molecule.     

Total and inorganic arsenic in marketed food and associated health risks for the Catalan (Spain) population

Inorganic arsenic (iAs) is considered to be a human carcinogen. In this paper, total (As) and iAs contents of 215 food products and drinks (i.e., seafood, fruits and vegetables, meat products, oils and fats, rice and rice products, seasonings, and alcoholic drinks) marketed in Catalonia (Spain) were quantified by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry. The analytical method described was used for different food products, obtaining feasible results without the need to couple LC-ICP-MS for iAs. Daily As and iAs intakes for the average adult Catalan consumer were estimated at 354 and 6.1 μg/day/person, respectively, using consumption data from the Catalan Nutrition Survey (ENCAT). The highest As content was found in seafood, contributing 96% of dietary As intake, whereas rice presented the highest iAs values, corresponding to 67% of dietary iAs intake. As cooking process may affect iAs content, boiled rice was evaluated, showing an iAs reduction (up to 86%) when using higher water volumes (30:1 water/rice ratio) than those used in previous studies. This iAs exposure was slightly below the exposure risk range stated by the European Food Safety Authority (0.3-8 μg/kg of body weight/day), although the possibility of a risk to the population with high rice consumption cannot be excluded.     

Local plant resources in the ethnobotany of Theth, a village in the Northern Albanian Alps

An ethnobotanical field study was carried out in one of the most remote and poorest areas of Europe: the village of Theth, which is located in the upper Shala Valley in the Northern Albanian Alps. In this study, seventy-nine botanical taxa known and used by the local population were recorded in interviews with thirty-two informants. Among the local food species recorded, the most highly sought after were Prunus cerasifera Ehrh. and Cornus mas L. fruits, which are used for producing home-made raki. A few elderly women in the village still gather wild greens (Urtica, Chenopodium, Amaranthus, and Rumex species), which are used as fillings for home-made pies (byrekë and laknur). Diverse vegetables (cabbage, turnips, tomatoes, peppers, and egg plants) are cultivated and harvested in spring and summer, and are conserved mainly via lacto-fermentation for consumption during the winter. Despite an almost total lack of medical assistance, the villagers of Theth gather only a few medicinal herbs on a regular basis, which they use internally to treat diverse minor ailments. These include the aerial parts of Origanum vulgare L., Hypericum maculatum Crantz, Agrimonia eupatoria L., and the roots of Gentiana lutea L. The findings from this field study could eventually stimulate sustainable plant gathering and harvesting activities in Theth for small-scale trade of a few food, medicinal, and handicraft products.     

Performance of a short tool to assess dietary intakes of fruits and vegetables, percentage energy from fat and fibre

OBJECTIVES: We describe the methods used to develop and score a 17-item 'screener' designed to estimate intake of fruit and vegetables, percentage energy from fat and fibre. The ability of this screener and a food-frequency questionnaire (FFQ) to measure these exposures is evaluated. DESIGN: Using US national food consumption data, stepwise multiple regression was used to identify the foods to be included on the instrument; multiple regression analysis was used to develop scoring algorithms. The performance of the screener was evaluated in three different studies. Estimates of intakes measured by the screener and the FFQ were compared with true usual intake based on a measurement error model. SETTING: US adult population. SUBJECTS: For development of instrument, n=9323 adults. For testing of instrument, adult men and women in three studies completing multiple 24-hour dietary recalls, FFQ and screeners, n=484, 462 and 416, respectively. RESULTS: Median recalled intakes for examined exposures were generally estimated closely by the screener. In the various validation studies, the correlations between screener estimates and estimated true intake were 0.5-0.8. In general, the performances of the screener and the full FFQ were similar; estimates of attenuation were lower for screeners than for full FFQs. CONCLUSIONS: When coupled with appropriate reference data, the screener approach described may yield useful estimates of intake, for both surveillance and epidemiological purposes.     

Survey of total and inorganic arsenic content in blue mussels (Mytilus edulis L.) from Norwegian fiords: revelation of unusual high levels of inorganic arsenic

The present study reports the findings of unusual high levels of inorganic arsenic in samples of blue mussels (Mytilus edulis L.). A total of 175 pooled samples of blue mussels from various locations along the Norwegian coastline were analyzed for their content of total arsenic and inorganic arsenic. Total arsenic was determined using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICPMS) following microwave-assisted acidic digestion of the samples. Inorganic arsenic was determined using an anion-exchange HPLC-ICPMS method following microwave-assisted alkaline solubilization of the samples. For the majority of the samples (78%) the concentration of total arsenic was below 3 mg kg(-1) wet weight (ww) and inorganic arsenic constituted <9% of the total arsenic (i.e., <0.25 mg kg(-1) ww). However, in some samples higher concentrations of total arsenic were found (up to 13.8 mg kg(-1) ww) and the inorganic arsenic content constituted up to 42% of the total arsenic (up to 5.8 mg kg(-1) ww). These are among the highest inorganic arsenic concentrations reported so far for marine animals. The findings of samples with concentrations of inorganic arsenic above 0.53 mg kg(-1) ww were restricted to sampling sites from two counties, Sogn and Fjordane and Hordaland, whereas samples from the rest of the country showed lower inorganic arsenic concentrations. Consumption of a meal containing 200 g of the blue mussels with the highest content of inorganic arsenic would for a 70 kg person lead to a 10% excess of the provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) value for inorganic arsenic of 15 microg kg(-1) of body weight week(-1).     

Bioaccumulation potential of dietary arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury, and selenium in organs and tissues of rainbow trout (Oncorhyncus mykiss) as a function of fish growth

The distribution and potential bioaccumulation of dietary arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury, and selenium in organs and tissues of rainbow trout (Oncorhyncus mykiss Walbaum, 1792), a major aquaculture species, was studied in relation to fish growth over a period of >3 years. Fish were reared under normal farming conditions, that is, fed a standard fish food and exposed to negligible levels of waterborne trace elements. The age-related variations in the content of each trace element in gills, kidney, liver, muscle, and skin were studied through nonparametric regression analysis. A buildup of all elements in all tissues and organs was observed, but due to dilution with growth, the concentrations did not increase, except in a few cases such as cadmium and mercury in liver and kidney. In muscle tissue, the concentrations of mercury, lead, and selenium did not alter significantly with growth, whereas cadmium increased but remained at exceedingly low levels. The concentration of arsenic in muscle tissue peaked at 14 months and then decreased in adult specimens. Arsenic speciation by high-performance liquid chromatography--inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry revealed that arsenic in muscle was almost exclusively present in the form of nontoxic arsenobetaine. Application of a mercury mass balance model gave predicted concentrations in agreement with measured ones and showed that in farmed rainbow trout the ratio of mercury concentrations in feed and in fish is about 1:1. Therefore, rainbow trout does not approach the limits established for human consumption even when reared with feed at the maximum permitted levels. These findings highlight the low bioaccumulation potential of toxic trace elements such as cadmium, lead, and mercury in rainbow trout following dietary exposure. On the other hand, selenium concentrations in muscle (about 0.2 microg g (-1) of fresh weight) show that rainbow trout may be a good source of this essential element.     

Effects of raw materials,ingredients, and production lines on arsenic and copper concentrations in confectionery products

The Spaniard legislation sets up maximum levels for total arsenic (As) and copper (Cu) in confectionery products at 0.1 and 5.0 microg g(-)(1), respectively. Concentrations of these two trace elements were determined in four confectionery products: chewing gum, two licorice items, and soft candy. The effects of raw materials quality and production lines were studied. Arsenic and copper were quantified by atomic absorption spectrometry with hydride generation and slotted-tube atom trap tubes, respectively. Their levels were, in general, below the maximum limits establish by the Spaniard legislation; however, the As concentration in the licorice sticks was above this maximum limit (0.11 +/- 0.01 microg g(-)(1)). Statistics proved that quality of raw materials and the production lines both significantly affected As and Cu concentrations in the final products. The licorice extract and molasses were found as the common source for As and Cu pollution. The As concentration in the licorice extract was 0.503 +/- 0.01 microg g(-)(1), and could represent a serious hazard to human health if it is used in high proportions.     

Dietary intake of heterocyclic amines in relation to socio-economic, lifestyle and other dietary factors: estimates in a Swedish population

OBJECTIVES: To estimate the dietary intakes of heterocyclic amines (HCAs), to examine the intakes in relation to socio-economics, lifestyle and other dietary factors and to compare the classification of subjects by intake of HCA versus intake of meat and fish. DESIGN: Cross-sectional analysis within the Malm? Diet and Cancer (MDC) cohort. Data were obtained from a modified diet history, a structured questionnaire on socio-economics and lifestyle, anthropometric measurements and chemical analysis of HCAs. HCA intake was cross-classified against meat and fish intake. The likelihood of being a high consumer of HCAs was estimated by logistic regression analysis. Dietary intakes were examined across quintiles of HCA intake using analysis of variance. SETTING: Baseline examinations conducted in 1991-1994 in Malm?, Sweden. SUBJECTS: A sub-sample of 8599 women and 6575 men of the MDC cohort. RESULTS: The mean daily HCA intake was 583 ng for women and 821 ng for men. Subjects were ranked differently with respect to HCA intake compared with intake of fried and baked meat and fish (kappa = 0.13). High HCA intake was significantly associated with lower age, overweight, sedentary lifestyle and smoking. Intakes of dietary fibre, fruits and fermented milk products were negatively associated with HCA intake, while intakes of selenium, vegetables, potatoes, alcohol (among men) and non-milk-based margarines (among women) were positively associated with HCA intake. CONCLUSIONS: The estimated daily HCA intake of 690 ng is similar to values obtained elsewhere. The present study suggests that lifestyle factors (e.g. smoking, physical activity, fruit and vegetable intakes, and types of milk products and margarines) may confound associations between HCA intake and disease. The poor correlation between HCA intake and intakes of fried meat and fish facilitates an isolation of the health effects of HCAs.     

Growth and tissue composition of rice grown in soil treated with inorganic copper,nickel, and arsenic

Abstract

Arsenic (As), copper (Cu), and nickel (Ni) are known to be toxic to plants. To evaluate their two and three way interaction effects on growth and tissue composition of rice (Oryza sativa L.), a short‐term greenhouse experiment was conducted. Four levels of As, three levels of Cu, and three levels of Ni were added to soil, alone and in all possible combinations, in a completely randomized block design. The biomass and Cu, Ni, and As concentrations of both shoots and roots were determined after rice was grown under flooded conditions for 57 days. As indicated by the analysis of variance, both shoot and root biomass were significantly decreased by the application of Ni, Cu, and As. Over the ranges of metal application rates used in this study, the effects of Ni, Cu, and As on the growth of rice plants were not independent of each other. In terms of toxicity to rice, a synergistic interaction existed between Cu and Ni while those between Ni and As, and Cu and As were antagonistic. A quadratic polynomial model adequately represented the effects of soil applied Cu, Ni, and As on rice growth. Plant tissue concentrations of Ni and Cu were also described by quadratic models, and the coefficients in these models clearly indicated that Cu and Ni competed with one another for uptake by rice. The presence of As enhanced the concentration of Cu and Ni in rice tissue. Tissue As concentration was a second order function of applied As and was not affected by addition of the other elements to the soil.