Occurrence of mycotoxins in Polish animal feed in years 2006-2009

We performed a 4‐year survey (2006–2009, 1255 samples) of fungal secondary metabolites in feed material (cereal and corn grains) and feedstuffs (silages, mixed feeds). Five major mycotoxin groups were studied, including aflatoxins (AF), ochratoxin A (OTA), trichothecenes [deoxynivalenol (DON), nivalenol (NIV), T‐2 toxin, HT‐2 toxin], zearalenone (ZEA) and fumonisins (FUM). The metabolites were identified using HPLC methods with fluorescent, UV and MS/MS detection. Both immunoaffinity and SPE columns were used for sample preparation. In eleven samples, the concentration of several mycotoxins exceeded the recommended guidelines for feedstuffs. DON was detected at the highest concentration in the majority of analysed samples (cereal grains, silages and mixed feeds, maximum values ranged from 409 to 14 470 ng/g). Corn grains also contained other Fusarium toxins (FUM) at maximum levels ranging from 435 to 9409 ng/g. The highest average_positive concentration of the other trichothecenes (NIV, T‐2 and HT‐2 toxins) was <5.0–139 ng/g. ZEA was found at the highest concentration in corn grains and silages (maximum values ranging from 292 to 603 ng/g and 116 to 1150 ng/g, respectively). The highest average_positive concentration and the maximum level of OTA were detected in cereal grains (33.0 ng/g in 2009 and 760 ng/g in 2007, respectively). Less than 7% of the 557 samples were contaminated with AF at low levels (maximum of 0.61 ng/g). Our results support the need for further monitoring of mycotoxins in Polish feedstuffs and their components.     

Mycotoxins in fungal contaminated samples of animal feed from western Canada, 1982-1994.

Feed samples from 94 cases involving fungal contamination and suspected mycotoxicosis of farm animals in western Canada were examined during 1982-1994 to assess the incidence of mycotoxins. Samples were analyzed for aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, citrinin, sterigmatocystin, and the fungal estrogen zearalenone. Samples infected with Fusarium fungi were additionally assayed for nivalenol, deoxynivalenol, fusarenone-x, 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol, diacetoxyscirpenol, HT-2 toxin, and T-2 toxin. Mycotoxins were found in 21 feed samples from 17 cases (18% of the reported cases), generally at levels far below those needed to induce symptoms under laboratory conditions. HT-2 toxin and other type-A trichothecenes were detected in 5 samples, deoxynivalenol and other type-B trichothecenes in 13, ochratoxin A in 5, and citrinin in 2. In 9 cases, symptoms observed in the animals were consistent with the known effects of the mycotoxin(s) found in the particular feed samples.     

Are mycotoxins in food a health hazard?

The effects of mycotoxins are well known since antiquity. Modern trace analysis show the wide prevalence of mycotoxins in the food chain. Aflatoxins (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2), trichothecenes (deoxynivalenol, T-2 Toxin, HT-2 Toxin), zearalenone, fumonisins (FB1, FB2) and ochratoxin A are the most important mycotoxins world wide. Foods of plant origin are normally contaminated more frequently and in higher concentrations than food of animal origin. The mean concentrations of mycotoxins analysed in European foods can be assed as low. This may be one reason why acute poisonings are rare incidences and why the limits of the tolerable daily intake (TDI) levels are exceeded only very seldom; however the population group "infant" exceed the preliminary TDI-level for trichothecenes. The consequences of a chronic intake of low amounts of mykotoxins is hardly to assess. A participation of the aflatoxins in the pathogenesis of primary liver cancer is considered as certain. Other coherence between the dietary intake of mycotoxins and specific clinical symptoms of man are not convincingly shown till now.     

玉米赤霉烯酮和脱氧血腐镰刀菌烯醇对雌性动物的生殖毒性及作用机制

镰刀菌毒素玉米赤霉烯酮(ZEA)和脱氧血腐镰刀菌烯醇(DON)广泛存在于受污染的谷物和饲料中。体内和体外研究表明,ZEA和DON均可影响雌性动物的繁殖性能,引起生殖器官、胎儿形态,生殖细胞成熟率,性激素分泌的改变。本文综述了ZEA和DON对雌性动物繁殖性能的影响及潜在的作用机制。     

Rejection by pigs of mouldy grain containing deoxynivalenol

SUMMARY: Weaner pigs on a farm near Beaudesert in south eastern Queensland refused to eat feed comprised largely of wheat and barley. Older pigs consumed small amounts and some prepubertal gilts subsequently displayed enlarged and reddened vulvas. Wheat, barley and triticale were grown on the farm during 1983, which was unusually and persistently wet. The wheat and triticale were harvested and stored for about 3 weeks with moisture contents above 14% before being fed. Samples of the wheat and triticale contained pale pink grains, which can indicate infection by the fungus Fusarium graminearum Schw. On analysis 2 mycotoxins known to be produced by F. graminearum were detected, deoxynivalenol (vomitoxin) which causes feed refusal and vomiting, and zearalenone which causes oestrogenic effects. Concentrations of deoxynivalenol in the wheat, triticale and barley were 34, 10, and < 0.1 mg/kg respectively. Concentrations of zearalenone were 6.2, 2.8 and 0.1 mg/kg respectively. Subsequently, F. graminearum was isolated from grains and crop residues. Although the wet weather contributed to F. graminearum infection of the crops before harvest, most of the toxins probably developed during storage.     

Fusarium crookwellense-produced zearalenone in maize stubble in the field

Waste grain and vegetative material (stems and leaves) collected from a maize field several months after harvest was analysed by bi-dimensional thin layer chromatography for the presence of aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol, ochratoxin A, sterigmatocystin, T-2 toxin and zearalenone. Deoxinivalenol (0.7 mg/kg) and T-2 toxin (4.1 mg/kg) were found in the grain and zearalenone (3.0 mg/ kg) was found in the stem and leaf. No other toxins were detected. The stubble was examined for the presence of potentially toxigenic Fusarium species, and F. poae, F. moniliforme var. subglutinans and F. crookwellense were isolated and identified. When these isolates were cultured on cracked corn, only F. crookwellense was found to produce micotoxins and then only zearalenone was detected. As corn stubble is commonly grazed in Argentina and in other countries, these findings identify a further source of mycotoxins that may adversely affect animal health and productivity.     

饲料中呕吐毒素对不同阶段商品猪及种猪的影响

我国不仅是畜牧业生产和消费大国,同时饲料产量也居世界首位,作为饲料中最常添加的谷物原料,其质量安全对饲料生产和养殖业有着重要影响。小麦、玉米等谷物在其生长、收获及加工等阶段未及时按规定处理会产生大量的霉菌毒素,其中呕吐毒素最为常见。呕吐毒素(DON)主要由镰刀菌属(如禾谷镰刀菌、尖孢镰刀菌等)产生,会造成不同阶段商品猪及种猪呕吐、肌肉出血、生长性能和繁殖力的下降等。本文综述了饲料中DON的污染现状及其对养猪生产的危害,进而提出了综合防治措施,为畜牧业生产者更好地防治DON污染、提高养殖收益提供系统科学参考。     

电化学生物传感器在真菌毒素检测中的研究进展

真菌毒素是真菌在食品或饲料中生长所产生的代谢产物,这些低分子质量化合物既是天然存在的,同时也是无法避免的。真菌通过两种途径进入食物链,一方面可以直接从受真菌毒素污染的植物性食品成分进入食物链;另一方面也可以通过食物中产毒真菌生长的间接污染进入食物链。真菌毒素广泛存在于成熟的玉米、谷物、大豆、高粱、花生和饲料作物中。食用受真菌毒素污染的食物或饲料会对人和动物造成急性或慢性毒性。真菌毒素除了有直接食用受霉菌毒素污染的食物和饲料造成的不良影响外,还有因为摄入动物源性食品,如肉类、牛奶或鸡蛋,含有真菌毒素的残留物或代谢物而引起的公众健康问题。目前虽然已经鉴定出超过400种真菌毒素,但食物中广泛存在的6种毒素：黄曲霉毒素、赭曲霉毒素、玉米赤霉烯酮、伏马菌素、呕吐毒素及T-2毒素,已在世界范围内引发了持续的食品安全问题。该论文总结了6种真菌毒素的毒性,重点分析了近年来电化学生物传感器在这几种真菌毒素检测中的研究进展,旨在通过一系列的总结分析去展望其在真菌毒素检测方面的发展前景。     

奶牛养殖中霉菌毒素的危害和脱毒技术

霉菌毒素是真菌产生的有毒的二级代谢产物,经常在奶牛饲料及其原料中发现。最常见的霉菌毒素是黄曲霉毒素（AF）、伏马菌素（FB）、玉米赤霉烯酮（ZEN）、脱氧雪腐镰刀菌烯醇（DON）、T-2毒素和赭曲霉毒素A（OTA）。当饲料中霉菌毒素的浓度超过一定水平时,会导致奶牛发生免疫抑制、肝肾毒性、繁殖障碍等诸多健康问题。奶牛饲料原料在生长、收获、加工和储藏过程中不可避免受到霉菌毒素的污染,应用脱毒方法是预防霉菌毒素危害奶牛健康的关键控制点。物理、化学和生物脱毒是实现霉菌毒素脱毒的常见技术措施。其中,物理吸附和生物降解脱毒具有安全、绿色、去除率高、不破坏饲料营养物质等诸多优势,是国内外研究的重点和方向。本文主要介绍了奶牛饲料中常见霉菌毒素的生物特性、致病机理及其对奶牛的危害和物理、化学、生物脱毒方法,为防控霉菌毒素污染,实现健康养殖提供参考。     

The significance of mycotoxin assimilation for meat animals

Mycotoxins may influence animal health and may be responsible for alterations in carcass composition and quality. Of major interest is the formation of residues in edible tissues, which had been demonstrated for the mycotoxins aflatoxin B1 and its metabolites, for ochratoxin A, zearalenone, as well as some trichothecenes. The amount of detectable residue depends on the initial feed contamination, duration of toxin exposure and persistence of the toxin within the animal the latter varying according to the species. Thus, residues of aflatoxins and ochratoxin A could be detected with a higher frequency than residues of trichothecenes which are rapidly metabolized and therefore only rarely contribute to a contamination of edible tissues. However, sufficient data for the evaluation of approximative carry over rates are not available for all mycotoxins. The majority of mycotoxins are heat tolerant and therefore a decomposition during cooking or processing is almost unlikely.     

Mycotoxins in foods and feeds in the United States.

Mycotoxins are considered unavoidable contaminants in foods and feeds because agronomic technology has not yet advanced to the stage at which preharvest infection of susceptible crops by fungi can be eliminated. The aflatoxins have received greater attention than any of the other mycotoxins because of their demonstrated carcinogenic effects in susceptible animals and their acute toxic effects in humans. Since 1965, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has enforced regulatory limits on the concentrations of these toxins in foods and feeds involved in interstate commerce. The FDA routinely monitors the food and feed industries through compliance programs to ensure that the levels of exposure to these toxins are kept as low as practical. This report summarizes data generated from compliance programs on aflatoxins for the fiscal years 1989, 1990, and the first half of 1991. Commodities sampled included peanuts and peanut products, tree nuts, corn and corn products, cottonseed, and milk. Higher than usual levels of contamination were found in corn examined from all areas of the United States in 1989 as a result of the severe drought that affected the 1988 corn crop. The drought in parts of the South and Southeast in 1990 resulted in increased contamination in corn and peanuts from those areas. A review of the surveillance data obtained on deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, ochratoxin A, sterigmatocystin, penicillic acid, and patulin over the years along with available toxicological data for these mycotoxins indicated that no regulatory actions were warranted. The lack of sufficient surveillance data on other mycotoxins that occur in the United States can be attributed in part to the unavailability of reliable analytical methodology.     

Fusarium crookwellense-produced zearalenone in maize stubble in the field

Waste grain and vegetative material (stems and leaves) collected from a maize field several months after harvest was analysed by bi-dimensional thin layer chromatography for the presence of aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol, ochratoxin A, sterigmatocystin, T-2 toxin and zearalenone. Deoxinivalenol (0.7 mg/kg) and T-2 toxin (4.1 mg/kg) were found in the grain and zearalenone (3.0 mg/ kg) was found in the stem and leaf. No other toxins were detected. The stubble was examined for the presence of potentially toxigenic Fusarium species, and F. poae, F. moniliforme var. subglutinans and F. crookwellense were isolated and identified. When these isolates were cultured on cracked corn, only F. crookwellense was found to produce micotoxins and then only zearalenone was detected. As corn stubble is commonly grazed in Argentina and in other countries, these findings identify a further source of mycotoxins that may adversely affect animal health and productivity.     

霉菌毒素对畜禽的危害及削减方法研究进展

霉菌毒素是由不同种属真菌产生的次级代谢物,其对多种动物（包括人在内）具有显著毒性效果,如降低畜禽生产性能、损害脏器功能、影响机体免疫功能、造成细胞和DNA氧化损伤,甚至导致动物死亡等。饲料及其原料霉菌毒素污染是一个广泛的、全球性的问题,既可在作物田间生长时产生,也可在仓储期间产生,给畜禽养殖业造成了巨大的经济损失,防控霉菌生长及去除饲料中霉菌毒素已成为国内外研究的热点。实际上,不同霉菌毒素对不同动物的损害具有差异性,而在畜禽养殖过程中添加适当物质（如蒙脱石和酶制剂等）可有效抑制霉菌毒素活性,缓解霉菌毒素的毒性。作者详细论述了玉米赤霉烯酮、烟曲霉毒素、呕吐毒素、T-2毒素、黄曲霉毒素和烟曲霉毒素对畜禽的危害,并从物理、化学、生物角度介绍了削减饲料及其原料中霉菌毒素的方法,旨在为合理有效防控霉菌毒素毒害及保障畜禽健康养殖提供参考。     

玉米赤霉烯酮对母猪的繁殖毒性研究进展

玉米赤霉烯酮（zearalenone,ZEA）是一种具有雌激素活性的真菌毒素,是猪生产中最常见的霉菌毒素之一。玉米赤霉烯酮广泛存在于谷物原料和配合饲料中,食入被其污染的饲料可导致母猪繁殖障碍,严重影响母猪的生产潜力和生产性能。本文就ZEA在猪饲料中的污染现状、对母猪的繁殖毒性以及毒性作用途径等方面进行综述,为进一步研究提供参考。     

饲料中的霉菌毒素及其防制措施

霉菌毒素是由真菌或霉菌产生的次级代谢产物,在动物体中,霉菌毒素的毒性是慢性的,很少引起动物死亡。但是霉菌毒素的存在降低了饲料的营养价值,以及动物的生产性能,从而影响生产力,且霉菌毒素在畜产品(肉、奶等)中的残留会给人类健康带来严重威胁。作者主要介绍了饲料中常见的霉菌毒素(黄曲霉毒素、赭曲霉毒素、玉米赤霉烯酮、脱氧雪腐镰刀菌烯醇、T-2毒素、伏马菌素等),以及其毒性和危害,并从预防与去毒两个方面,阐述了霉菌毒素的防制措施,进而减少霉菌毒素造成的危害。     

Analysis of Canadian and Irish forage,oats and commercially available equine concentrate feed for pathogenic fungi and mycotoxins

Respiratory infections, recurrent airway obstruction (RAO) and exercise induced pulmonary haemorrhage (EIPH) are major causes of poor performance in horses. Fungi and mycotoxins are now recognised as a major cause of these conditions. The most notable fungi are Aspergillus and Fusarium. Fungal spores can originate from forage, bedding and feed and, in turn, these fungal spores can produce a series of mycotoxins as secondary metabolites.This study set out to ascertain the degree of fungal and mycotoxin contamination in feed and fodder used in Irish racing yards over a one-year period. Weather conditions in forage producing areas were sampled by Met Eireann and the Canadian Meteorological Service.Fifty per cent of Irish hay, 37% of haylage and 13% of Canadian hay contained pathogenic fungi. Of the mycotoxins, T2 and zearalenone were most prominent. Twenty-one per cent of Irish hay and 16% of pelleted feed contained zearalenone. Forty per cent of oats and 54% of pelleted feed contained T2 toxins.     

Mycotoxin interactions in poultry and swine

Mycotoxins are toxic compounds produced by fungi. When one mycotoxin is detected, one should suspect that others also are present in a contaminated feed ingredient or finished feeds. The toxicity and clinical signs of observed in animals when more than one mycotoxin is present in feed are complex and diverse. Some mycotoxins, such as the combination of aflatoxin with either ochratoxin A or T-2 toxin, interact to produce synergistic toxicity in broiler chicks. The effects observed during multiple mycotoxin exposure can differ greatly from the effects observed in animals exposed to a single mycotoxin. For example, fatty livers in poultry are used for presumptive diagnostic identification of aflatoxicosis. However, simultaneous presence of ochratoxin A prevents fatty livers. Of the mycotoxin combinations that have been investigated in poultry and swine, the aflatoxin + ochratoxin A and aflatoxin + T-2 toxin interactions appear to be the most toxic.     

Effects of feeding a blend of grains naturally contaminated with Fusarium mycotoxins on feed intake,serum chemistry,and hematology of horses,and the efficacy of a polymeric glucomannan mycotoxin adsorbent

The feeding of Fusarium mycotoxin-contaminated grains adversely affects the performance of swine and poultry. Very little information is available, however, on adverse effects associated with feeding these mycotoxin-contaminated grains on the performance of horses. An experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of feeding a blend of grains naturally contaminated with Fusarium mycotoxins on feed intake, serum immunoglobulin (Ig) concentrations, serum chemistry, and hematology of horses. A polymeric glucomannan mycotoxin adsorbent (GM polymer) was also tested for efficacy in preventing Fusarium mycotoxicoses. Nine mature, nonexercising, light, mixed-breed mares were assigned randomly to one of three dietary treatments for 21 d. The horses were randomly reassigned and the experiment was subsequently replicated in time following a 14-d washout interval. Feed consumed each day was a combination of up to 2.8 kg of concentrates and 5 kg of mixed timothy/alfalfa hay. The concentrates fed included the following: 1) control, 2) blend of contaminated grains (36% contaminated wheat and 53% contaminated corn), and 3) blend of contaminated grains + 0.2% GM polymer. Diets containing contaminated grains averaged 15.0 ppm of deoxynivalenol, 0.8 ppm of 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol, 9.7 ppm of fusaric acid, and 2.0 ppm of zearalenone. Feed intake by all horses fed contaminated grains was reduced (P < 0.001) compared with controls throughout the experiment. Supplementation of 0.2% GM polymer to the contaminated diet increased (P = 0.004) feed intake of horses compared with those fed the unsupplemented contaminated diet. Serum activities of gamma-glutamyltransferase were higher (P = 0.047 and 0.027) in horses fed the diet containing contaminated grain compared with those fed the control diet on d 7 and 14, but not on d 21 (P = 0.273). Supplementation of GM polymer to the contaminated diet decreased (P < 0.05) serum gamma-glutamyltransferase activities of horses compared with those fed unsupplemented contaminated diet on d 7 and 14. Other hematology and serum chemistry measurements including serum IgM, IgG, and IgA, were not affected by diet. It was concluded that the feeding of grains naturally contaminated with Fusarium mycotoxins caused a decrease in feed intake and altered serum gamma glutamyltransferase activities. The supplementation of GM polymer prevented these mycotoxin-induced adverse effects.     

Occurrence of the fusariotoxins deoxynivalenol and zearalenone in Austrian feedstuff in the period from 1995 to 1999

3970 feed samples were analysed for the fusariumtoxins deoxynivalenol and zearalenone. 979 (24.6%) of the submitted feed samples from farms with case history (swine herds: decreased feed intake and daily weight gain, vomiting, cannibalism, impaired fertility, small litter size, weakness of newborn piglets, prolonged oestrus of sows; cattle: persistence of follicular ovarian cysts, enteritis, decreased slaughter weight, feed refusal). 74% of the samples contained cereal and corn ingredients respectively or were complete diet samples from swine herds. Based on economic losses the fusariumtoxin deoxynivalenol is most important in Austrian husbandry and particularly found in maize, cornsilage, wheat and oat.     

Mycobiota and aflatoxins in raw materials and pet food in Brazil

Commercial feedstuffs are a basic element in modern pet husbandry in the world. In dogs, the effect of mycotoxins is severe and can lead to death. Few reports on the influence of dietary mycotoxins were found in the scientific literature. The aims of this work were to isolate and identify the mycoflora and to determine the aflatoxins (AFs) natural occurrence in raw materials and ready dry pet food. Therefore, the aflatoxigenic capacity of Aspergillus flavus species was investigated. Aspergillus was the prevalent genera (65-89%) followed by Penicillium and Fusarium spp. Aspergillus flavus was the most prevalent species, followed by Aspergillus sydowii, Aspergillus fumigatus and Aspergillus versicolor. Aspergillus flavus frequencies ranged from 58% to 86% except in sorghum meal. All samples assayed (except corn grains and ready pet food) showed Fusarium spp. contamination. Corn meal and corn meal and gluten samples had 100% Fusarium verticillioides. Fusarium graminearum was isolated from sorghum meal. Aspergillus flavus strains (75%) isolated from raw materials and 57% from pet food were able to produce AFs. All samples showed AFs contamination percentages over 70%; corn and sorghum meal obtained the highest AFs levels. Ready pet food did not show quantitative levels of the tested toxins. This is the first report of the aflatoxigenic capacity by A. flavus from Brazilian pet food.