Apple Industry Performance,Intellectual Property Rights and Innovation

Abstract

This study examines the changing structure of the apple industry in Canada and the United States over the last two decades. We attempt to describe whether changing policy environments (e.g., Canada-U.S. Free Trade Agreement) and strengthened intellectual property (IP) rights have affected innovativeness and the competitive position of the North American apple industry. Our analysis shows that Canadian apple production has been on a decline, with apple imports expanding to satisfy production shortfalls and changing consumer preferences for cultivar diversity and year-round supply. By contrast, U.S. apple production expanded in the 1990s because of strengthened exports stemming from export promotion programs and slight increases in foreign demand in selected Asian markets. Our results show that U.S. inventors are protecting their IP by the use of patents to a larger extent than their Canadian counterparts.     

Revisiting futures: integrating culture,care and time in landscapes

Context

Two approaches to study landscape change have been exploited: one that tries to study the developments that have happened in the past, and another that tries to foresee future.

Objectives

We analyse how this dual approach can help understanding landscape change, how people relate to it in general, what their expectations and preferences are. We also discuss the usefulness of path dependency theory, cultural sustainability, and cultural ecosystem services approaches in understanding the management of a historical cultural landscape.

Methods

First, we revisit a 1999 scenario study that outlined the possible trajectories of change prior Estonian accession to the European Union in 2004. Then, through series of studies we track the wider context of the landscape changes, analysing the results from the interviews and combining those with the visible results. We seek to answer whether or not the landscape changes that occurred followed any of the past scenarios, and if people’s preferences changed.

Results

The dynamics of realisation of different scenarios was not straightforward. However, people showed clear preference towards landscapes that carried signs of the continuation of rural life. What was not foreseen when designing the scenarios was the upsurge of local identity creating the links with the past.

Conclusions

In this Estonian traditional cultural landscape, stewardship, culture and cultural ecosystem services, or nature’s contribution to people as IPBES prefers to call this now, define what caring for the landscape involves.

     

Role of product characteristics for the adoption of fruit and fruit product innovations

Summary

The aim of this study was the identification of those product characteristics that are important for the adoption of fruit and fruit product innovations by consumers. Sixteen focus group discussions were held in four European countries (Greece, The Netherlands, Poland, and Spain). Different aspects of six innovative fruit products were discussed, revealing those characteristics that were important for the adoption of each of them. It was observed that the participants did not perceive fruit innovations as a homogenous group, but assigned them to different groups, which led to a number of categories of fruit innovation. Three categories concerned the level of preparation of fruit. These were fresh, prepared, and processed fruit product innovations. Another two categories, radical and evolutionary innovations, related to the level of novelty of the fruit innovation. Characteristics important for the adoption of each of these categories are given. The results will be used for further, more quantitative, research.     

Resource landscapes and movement strategy shape Queensland Fruit Fly population dynamics

Context

Animal population dynamics are shaped by their movement decisions in response to spatial and temporal resource availability across landscapes. The sporadic availability and diversity of resources can create highly dynamic systems. This is especially true in agro-ecological landscapes where the dynamic interplay of insect movement and heterogeneous landscapes hampers prediction of their spatio-temporal dynamics and population size.

Objectives

We therefore systematically looked at population-level consequences of different movement strategies in temporally-dynamic resource landscapes for an insect species whose movement strategy is slightly understood: the Queensland Fruit Fly (Bactrocera tryoni)

Methods

We developed a spatially-explicit model to predict changes in population dynamics and sizes in response to varying resources across a landscape. We simulated the temporal dynamics of fruit trees as the main resource using empirical fruiting dates. Movement strategies were derived from general principles and varied in directedness of movement and movement trigger.

Results

We showed that temporal continuity in resource availability was the main contributing factor for large and persistent populations. This explicitly included presence of continuous low-density resources such as fruit trees in urban areas. Analysing trapping data from SE Australia supported this finding. We also found strong effects of movement strategies, with directed movement supporting higher population densities.

Conclusions

These results give insight into structuring processes of spatial population dynamics of Queensland Fruit Fly in realistic and complex food production landscapes, but can also be extended to other systems. Such mechanistic understanding will help to improve forecasting of spatio-temporal hotspots and bottlenecks and will, in the end, enable more targeted population management.

     

Dried fruit and its functional properties from a consumer’s point of view

Summary

Modern drying technology provides the opportunity to obtain dried fruits with high concentrations of bioactive compounds. Such products may also be fortified with functional ingredients. The adoption of dried fruit as a carrier of functional ingredients for consumers is indispensable to launch this kind of product successfully on the market. Thus, the aim of this study was to collect data on consumer perceptions and interests in dried fruits (plain or fortified) through a questionnaire distributed on the Internet to 1,092 Dutch, French, and Polish respondents. In this quantitative study, the respondents were first asked to rank statements about a product with different positive influences on human health. Products which lowered the risk of cancer or heart diseases were mainly of interest to Polish and Dutch respondents, whereas French consumers emphasised the prevention of intestinal problems. Furthermore, we checked the level of consumer interest in dried fruits enriched with a particular functional ingredient (e.g., anti-oxidants, natural fruit sugars, or prebiotics). Products with anti-oxidants seemed to be the most promising in all three countries investigated. Among five different forms of product (i.e., candy, fruit teas, cereals, bars, or cookies) in which dried fruit could be incorporated, cereals were selected by approx. 33% of all respondents as the best product to which a functional dried fruit could be added. In summary, dried fruits can be adopted as carriers of functional ingredients, especially when promoted as a source of anti-oxidants.     

Contribution of Health Attributes,Research Investment and Innovation to Developments in the Blueberry Industry

Abstract

This paper examines how the United States and Canadian highbush and lowbush blueberry industries have changed over the last two decades. Production increases have been driven by a combination of changing consumer preferences for healthy foods and the development of new cultivars that have opened new production regions, expanded fresh market opportunities, and created new food products. Canada has found it advantageous and economical to invest its research effort in the development of the lowbush blueberry, exploiting its health protective properties. The United States has concentrated its research effort on highbush cultivars to lengthen the harvest window and promote diversification opportunities in the Southern United States. Highbush production expansion in the Pacific Northwest has relied very little on new cultivar development and improvements in yield but more on increases in cultivated area.     

Contribution of Health Attributes,Research Investment,and Innovation to Developments in the Blueberry Industry

Abstract

This paper examines how the United States and Canadian highbush and lowbush blueberry industries have changed over the last two decades. Production increases have been driven by a combination of changing consumer preferences for healthy foods and the development of new cultivars that have opened new production regions, expanded fresh market opportunities, and created new food products. Canada has found it advantageous and economical to invest its research effort in the development of the lowbush blueberry, exploiting its health protective properties. The Unites States has concentrated its research effort on highbush cultivars to lengthen the harvest window and promote diversification opportunities in the Southern United States. Highbush production expansion in the Pacific Northwest has relied very little on new cultivar development and improvements in yield but more on increases in cultivated area.     

Analysing the innovation process in the EU Integrated Programme,ISAFRUIT

Summary

ISAFRUIT is an integrated European Union Project focussed on increasing fruit consumption as a means to improve human health, through evaluating the fruit chain and addressing bottlenecks therein. The innovations which are being developed throughout the ISAFRUIT Project have been analysed to determine both the success factors and the obstacles in reaching the commercialisation stage. Only 9.58% of the deliverables planned within the Project were focussed on developing technological innovations. There is evidence, however, of successes in the development of new innovations arising from the ISAFRUIT Project, with several other potential innovations in the pipeline. Of the technologies identified, 67% are still at the “invention stage”; that is, the stage prior to bridging the so-called “valley of death”, the stage between an invention and an innovation. Those which are considered to have moved over the “valley of death” either had industry partners included in the Project, or had consulted with industry to ensure that the technology was relevant, or met a recognised industry need. Many of the technologies which made less progress did not have the same interactions with industry. A number of other issues were identified which prevented further progress towards innovation. The need for scientists to publish scientific papers, both for their career pathways and to increase their chances of future funding, was identified as one issue, although the filing of patents is now becoming more accepted and recognised. The patenting system is considered complex by many scientists and is not well-understood. Finally, agreements between partners on the sharing of intellectual property rights can cause a delay in the innovation process.     

Towards sustainable forest management in the European Union through polycentric forest governance and an integrated landscape approach

Context

Achieving sustainable development as an inclusive societal process, and securing sustainability and resilience of human societies as well as the natural environment are wicked problems. Realising sustainable forest management (SFM) policy in local landscapes is one example.

Objectives

Using the European Union as a case study for the implementation of SFM policy across multiple governance levels in different contexts, we discuss the benefits of adopting an integrated landscape approach with place and space, partnership and sustainability as three pillars.

Methods

We map the institutional frameworks for implementing SFM policy within all EU member states. Next, we analyse whether or not there is EU-level forest governance, and how power is distributed among EU, member state and operational levels.

Results

Mechanisms to steer a centralized forest governance approach towards SFM in the EU are marginal. Instead, there is a polycentric forest governance with 90 national and sub-national governments, which create and implement own and EU-wide SFM-related policies. Additionally, both among and within regional governance units there is a large variation in governance arrangements linked to land ownership at the operational level.

Conclusions

To effectively translate EU-wide SFM and SFM-related policies into action in local landscapes, it is crucial to acknowledge that there are different land ownership structures, landscape histories and alternative value chains based on multiple ecosystem services. Therefore regionally adapted landscape approaches engaging multiple stakeholders and actors through evidence-based landscape governance and stewardship towards sustainable forest landscape management are needed. Model Forest, Long-Term Socio-Ecological Research platform and Biosphere Reserve are three of many examples.

     

Flower bud thinning in ‘Rojo Liso’ cactus pear

Summary

The export of cactus pear fruit from Mexico has increased over the last decade, with growing consumer demand for larger and higher quality fruit. Growers are concerned that yields decrease when fruit thinning is used to increase fruit size. Our objective was to assess the effects of flower bud (FB) thinning on the pre-harvest and post-harvest attributes and yields of ‘Rojo Liso’ cactus pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) fruit. The experiments were conducted in 2005 and 2006. The treatments used were: 1) no thinning, considered as the control; 2) thinning every second bud (T1); or 3) thinning two out of every three buds (T2). Marketable fruit (having an equatorial diameter > 5 cm) in the thinned treatments increased compared to the unthinned controls in both seasons. Thinning did not reduce fruit yield. Fruit quality was similar among treatments, both at harvest and after storage, except for the soluble solids concentrations which were higher in both the T1 and T2 treatments in 2005. Fruit weight loss in storage was similar among treatments. Flower bud thinning can therefore be recommended for commercial use.     

Application of 2,4-dichlorophenoxypropionic acid 2-ethylhexyl ester reduces mature fruit abscission in Citrus navel cultivars

Summary

2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) isopropyl ester has been used extensively, since the 1950’s, to reduce mature fruit abscission in Citrus navel cultivars. However, this synthetic auxin is no longer registered for this purpose in the European Union (EU). 2,4-dichlorophenoxypropionic acid (2,4-DP) 2-ethylhexyl ester has been registered in the EU for use in citrus growing and can be an effective replacement for 2,4-D to reduce pre-harvest fruit abscission. Use of the 2-ethylhexyl ester of 2,4-DP sprayed before mature fruit abscission significantly reduced fruit drop in sweet orange (Citrus sinensis L. Osbeck) ‘Washington navel’ and ‘Navelate’. The magnitude of the response depended on the concentration applied. At 15 mg l^–1, the percentage of abscised fruit was reduced by 50–75% compared to untreated trees, depending on the variety and the orchard. Increasing the concentration applied to 50 mg l^–1 did not improve this response. The response to this auxin was as effective as that obtained with 2,4-D applied on the same day at the same concentration (15 mg l^–1). 2, 4-DP treatment had no effect on skin colour or on the internal and external characteristics of the fruit at harvest.     

The effect of different osmotic agents on the sensory perception of osmo-treated dried fruit

Summary

To increase the attractiveness of dried fruit, the osmotic dehydration method (DIS) was used to fortify the structural matrix of fruit tissues with health-promoting compounds. The aim of these studies was to determine the impact of different osmotic agents on the sensory perception and acceptability of osmo-dried and osmo-freeze-dried sour cherries, blackcurrants, and apples. The osmo-dried fruits, thus manufactured, were subjected to profile sensory analysis. With the exception of basic fruit taste, all the sensory attributes investigated were influenced significantly by the osmotic agent used for fruit impregnation before drying. We proved that the osmotic solution significantly influenced the taste and/or texture profile of the dehydrated fruit and affected their sensory acceptability, but the changes depended on species and drying method. In general, dried fruit pre-treated with sucrose (S), inverted sugar (IS), or de-acidified fruit juice (DeAFJ) were characterised by having a predominantly sweet taste, while those treated with concentrated apple juice (JF) had high acidity. Oligofructose (OF) applied to freeze-dried fruit created a high level of crispness in the final product. Polyols such as galactosorbitol (GALSOR) and sorbitol (SOR) could not be recommended for osmotic impregnation of fruit due to a sensation of increasing hardness that lowered consumer acceptability of the product.     

Opportunities and Challenges of Carbon Footprint,Climate or CO2 Labelling for Horticultural Products

The number of fruits on the German and European markets with a carbon label is on the increase. This contribution reviews the existing carbon labels by evaluating, categorising and giving background information to provide guidance for labelling home-grown horticultural produce. The existing labels worldwide were classified in 10 categories: (1) CO₂ value; (2) Colour code (with or without CO₂ value); (3) CO₂ reduction (Carbon Trust, Tesco’s, UK) or conversion labels; (4) Climatop for Migros, Switzerland (temporal label for the best product within a product category, e.g., banana, rice, salt); (5) Airfreight labels, e.g., Marks & Spencer’s UK (without further information); (6) ‘Climate, carbon offset or CO₂-neutral’, e.g., NewTree, (only when using gold standard CO₂ emission certificates); (7) unaccounted CO₂ compensation measures (such as planting young trees: ‘CO₂ pineapple’ in Costa Rica); (8) Sustainability labels (ProPlanet, REWE), (9) sustainability reports (printed or online) and (10) QR-Code on the shelf or product to access web-based information. The ‘Pros and Cons’ of the climate labels are compared with respect to the seasonal fruit and vegetables often sold on the markets as lose items and the stakeholder interest. Labelling approaches 4, 8, 9 and 10 appeared suitable for seasonal fruits and vegetables based on criteria such as transparency, clarity, objectivity and integration in the sustainability context. Overall, it is difficult to use labels with a CO₂ value for horticultural products, because (a) the consumer may find it difficult to judge and memorise numeric values, particularly if expressed on different units (e.g. packet size, 1 l, 100 g) and (b) because of the big variation between the farm production systems and the variability between the year to year weather and (c) the consumer may find shopping with a seasonal crop calendar and country of origin label a better choice.     

Participatory mapping of landscape values in a Pan-European perspective

Context

Human–nature interactions are reflected in the values people assign to landscapes. These values shape our understanding and actions as landscape co-creators, and need to be taken into account to achieve an integrated management of the landscape that involves civil society.

Objectives

The aim of this research was to increase the current knowledge on the most and least common landscape values perceived by local stakeholders, the patterns in the spatial distribution of values, and their connection to different socio-economic backgrounds and landscape characteristics across Europe.

Methods

The research consisted of a cross-site comparison study on how landscape values are perceived in six areas of Europe using Public Participation GIS surveys. Answers were analysed combining contingency tables, spatial autocorrelation and bivariate correlation methods, kernel densities, land cover ratios, and viewshed analyses. Results were discussed in the light of findings derived from other European participatory mapping studies.

Results

We identified shared patterns in the perception of landscape values across Europe. Recreation, aesthetics, and social fulfilment were the most common values. Landscape values showed common spatial patterns mainly related to accessibility and the presence of water, settlements, and cultural heritage. However, respondents in each study site had their own preferences connected to the intrinsic characteristics of the local landscape and culture.

Conclusions

The results encourage land planners and researchers to approach landscape values in relation to socio-cultural and bio-physical land characteristics comprehensibly, acknowledging the complexity in the relationship between people’s perception and the landscape, to foster more effective and inclusive landscape management strategies.

     

Compositional and Functional Properties of Saskatoon Berry and Blueberry

Abstract

Saskatoon berry (Amelanchier alnifolia Nutt., Rosaceae) and blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L., Ericaceae) are substantially equivalent in all characteristics that are important to the consumer, including fruit color, shape, size, nutrition, texture, and uses. In addition, both fruits are native to North America and they have practically identical historical uses and known health benefits. Their composition, processing, nutritional value and metabolism, intended uses, and levels of undesirable substances are compared.     

Predicting fruit maturation in kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa)

Summary

In New Zealand, 6.2% soluble solids concentration (SSC) is the minimum maturity at which kiwifruit destined for export can be harvested. Ambient temperature during the fruit maturation period has been shown to affect the soluble solids accumulation rate. The purpose of the present study was to describe variation in the rate of fruit soluble solids accumulation in different regions and seasons and to develop a means of quantifying the effects of temperature on the rate of fruit maturation. Measurements of fruit SCC were made over a three year period on one orchard in each of six principal kiwifruit-growing regions across New Zealand. The date at which fruit reached 6.2% SSC varied by 34 d across all sites and years. There was an 18 d range in the average date across all sites, with Riwaka, the coolest site being the earliest, and Kerikeri, the warmest site, being the latest. The variation from year to year across all sites was 12 d. We formulated a non-linear, time-dependent model to predict the rate of change of SSC with time, given the temperature and the time since flowering. This model accounted for nearly 60% of the variation in the date that 6.2% SSC was reached and 70% of the variation in the date that 6.5% SSC was reached, if a common initial SSC was assumed across all sites and seasons. No improvement was obtained if the initial SSC was measured about three months after flowering, rather than assumed. A similar model which used the day of year rather than days since flowering was found to be slightly less accurate. However, all three versions of the model performed better than a linear regression model based on mean temperature for the fruit growth period and the date at which 5.0% SSC was reached.     

Post-disturbance recovery of forest cover and tree height differ with management in Central Europe

Context

Recovery from disturbances is a prominent measure of forest ecosystem resilience, with swift recovery indicating resilient systems. The forest ecosystems of Central Europe have recently been affected by unprecedented levels of natural disturbance, yet our understanding of their ability to recover from disturbances is still limited.

Objectives

We here integrated satellite and airborne Lidar data to (i) quantify multi-decadal post-disturbance recovery of two indicators of forest structure, and (ii) compare the recovery trajectories of forest structure among managed and un-managed forests.

Methods

We developed satellite-based models predicting Lidar-derived estimates of tree cover and stand height at 30 m grain across a 3100 km² landscape in the Bohemian Forest Ecosystem (Central Europe). We summarized the percentage of disturbed area that recovered to >?40% tree cover and >?5 m stand height and quantified the variability in both indicators over a 30-year period. The analyses were stratified by three management regimes (managed, protected, strictly protected) and two forest types (beech-dominated, spruce-dominated).

Results

We found that on average 84% of the disturbed area met our recovery threshold 30 years post-disturbance. The rate of recovery was slower in un-managed compared to managed forests. Variability in tree cover was more persistent over time in un-managed forests, while managed forests strongly converged after a few decades post-disturbance.

Conclusion

We conclude that current management facilitates the recovery of forest structure in Central European forest ecosystems. However, our results underline that forests recovered well from disturbances also in the absence of human intervention. Our analysis highlights the high resilience of Central European forest ecosystems to recent disturbances.

     

Forest proximity rather than local forest cover affects bee diversity and coffee pollination services

Context

As agricultural demands for land continues to expand, strategies are urgently needed to balance agricultural production with biodiversity conservation and ecosystem service provision in agricultural landscapes.

Objectives

We used a factorial landscape design to assess the relative contributions of forest proximity and local forest cover to bee diversity and the provision of coffee pollination services.

Methods

We quantified bee diversity and fruit set in 24 sun-grown coffee fields in Southeast Region of Brazil that were selected following a factorial sampling design to test the independent effects of local forest cover (in a radius of 400 m) and proximity to forest fragments. To assess the impact of landscape simplification, we also evaluated local coffee cover.

Results

Bee richness and abundance were higher in the proximity of forest fragments, but only bee abundance decreased when the coffee cover dominated the surrounding landscapes. Coffee fruit set was 16% higher overall with bee visitations compared with bee exclusion and increased to 20% when coffee bushes were near forest fragments, and the coffee cover was low. Surprisingly, local forest cover did not affect the bee community or coffee fruit set.

Conclusion

Our results provide clear evidence that the proximity of coffee crops to forest fragments can affect the abundance and richness of bees visiting the coffee flowers and thereby facilitate the provision of pollination services. The positive association between forest proximity and fruit set reinforces the importance of natural vegetation in enhancing bee diversity and, therefore, in the provision of pollination services. The negative effect of coffee cover on fruit set at the local scale suggests that the service demand can surpass the capacity of pollinators to provide it. These effects were independent of the local forest cover, although all studied landscapes had more than 20% remaining forest cover (within a 2 km radius), which is considered the extinction threshold for Atlantic Forest species. Interspersion of forest fragments and coffee plantations in regions with more than 20% of forest cover left could thus be a useful landscape management target for facilitating pollinator flows to coffee crops and thus for increasing coffee yields.

     

Comparison of sampling strategies for determining fruit mineral concentrations in ‘Hass’ avocado (Persea americana Mill.)

Summary

Spatial and temporal variation in mineral and dry matter (DM: % dry weight) concentrations were examined in ‘Hass’ avocado (Persea americana Mill.) fruit to identify sampling strategies for examining fruit mineral, DM and fruit quality relationships. Calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), and DM concentrations were compared from different parts of the same fruit, from fruit harvested from different shoot types and locations within the same tree, and at different stages during the growing season, from fruit set to commercial harvest. The main source of variation within fruit was longitudinal, with K and DM concentrations being higher at the distal end of the fruit. Sampling methods based on equatorial plugs of tissue provided the best estimates of whole fruit values for DM and mineral nutrients. While there was much variability in the internal distribution of minerals within the fruit, the distribution was the same for fruit from both the northern and southern aspects of the tree. During the first 4 months after fruit set, fruit from determinate floral shoots (i.e., with a flower in the terminal position) had higher Ca and Mg concentrations than fruit from indeterminate shoots (i.e., with a shoot in the terminal position). After this time, fruit Mg and Ca concentrations were higher on indeterminate shoots, possibly because of changes in sink-strength and increased transpirational flow associated with new leaf growth on indeterminate shoots. The data showed that shoot type was a source of fruit-tofruit variability in an avocado crop, and that care should be taken in sampling fruit tissues for nutrient analyses.